Classification of Phraseological Units

1) The Bible – the most important source of borrowed phraseology. The idioms borrowed from the bible are quite numerous: forbidden fruit (something that is desired because it is forbidden of disapproved of), the root of all devil (money), the olive branch (the symbol of peace and quite), new vine in old bottles (new contents in the old shape), a wolf in a sheep’s clothing (a person who appears to be friendly, or harmless, but is really an enemy or evil-doer), can the leopard change his sports? (some people cannot change some of their habits or manners, behaviour), pride goes before a fall (pride is a sin that leads to a collapse), the left hand does not know what the right hand is doing (communication in an organization is bad so that one part does not know what is happening in another part).

2) Ancient legends and myths: to cut the Gordian knot (to deal with a difficult problem in a strong, simple and effective way), the apple of discord (a reason for quarrel), an Achilles’ heel (a weakness or fault which may not be known but which when discovered can be used to damage or destroy somebody), a Trojan horse (a disguised means of introducing something harmful or disadvantageous), a bed of roses (happy careless life).

3) Fairy-tales: an ugly duckling (a child, chick, puppy, etc. born less attractive than his brothers or sisters who later surprises them), Alladdin’s lamp (a thing of magic which fulfills every wish of its master) [16, 135-136; 14, 113-115].

4) Facts and events of the world history. Example: to cross the Rubicon (to do something which will have very important results which cannot be changed after), Julius Caesar started a war which resulted in victory for him by crossing the river Rubicon in Italy. Another example: to meet one’s Waterloo (to be faced with a final defeat, especially after previous success, a difficulty or obstacle one cannot overcome), from the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815.

5) Variants of the English language. There are a lot of Americanisms among English phraseological units: a heavy hitter (someone who is powerful and has achieved a lot), to look/feel like a million dollars (to feel and look fine), to cut a pie (to interfere), to smoke the pipe of peace (to make peace), the last of the Mohicans (a man possessing some rare qualities).

6) Other languages (both classical and modern): second to none (equal with any other and better than most) from Latin, for somebody’s fair eyes (because of personal sympathy, for nothing) from French, the fair sex (women) from French, let the cat out of the bag (to reveal a secret carelessly or by mistake) from German, blue blood (aristocracy) from Spanish, every dog is a lion at home (to feel significant in the familiar surrounding) from Italian, the Sick Man of Europe (originally Turkey, at present any European country in a difficult economic position) from Russian [16, 135-136; 14, 113-115].

2.2. Semantic Classification of Phraseological Units

The classification of phraseological units on a semantic principle was suggested by the prominent Russian scholar V. V. Vinogradov, who made the great contribution to this branch of linguistic science. He took into account the degree of idiomaticity (motivation of meaning) of phraseological units that is the relationship existing between the meaning of the whole and the meaning of their component parts. In other words, he considered the degree of semantic cohesion between the components of a phraseological unit: the more distant the meaning of a phraseological unit from the current meaning of its constituent parts, the greater is its degree of semantic cohesion [9, 245]. Thus, according to this principle Academician V. V. Vinogradov pointed out three types of phraseological units, namely phraseological fusions, phraseological unities and phraseological collocations.

Phraseological fusions are completely non-motivated word-groups. The meaning of the whole in phraseological fusion cannot be deduced at least synchronically from the meanings of its constituent parts. So the degree of motivation is very low in this case, and idiomaticity is, as a rule, combined with complete stability of the lexical components and the grammatical structure of the fusion [12, 75]. Phraseological fusions are specific for every language and do not lend themselves to literal translation (that is they cannot be translated word for word) into other languages [10, 170]. We may give the following examples of phraseological fusions: a red tape (bureaucratic methods), a heavy father (serious or solemn part in a theatrical play), to kick the bucket (to die) [12, 75], a blue stocking (a pedantic woman devoid of feminine qualities), to show the white feather (to get frightened), to be in the red (to have debts) [14, 108], a white elephant (an expensive but useless thing) [16, 134], at sixes and sevens (in a mess) [11], et cetera.

Phraseological unities are much more numerous. They are partially motivated word-groups because their meaning can be usually guessed from the meanings of its components through the metaphorical meaning of the whole phraseological unit. It is important to explain that the metaphorical meaning is the meaning the word-group acquires as a result of a complete or partial change of meaning of an initial word-combination on the basis of likening of one object of reality to another [16, 133]. Phraseological unities are as a rule marked by a comparatively high degree of stability of the lexical components. The examples of phraseological unities are to show one’s teeth (to take a threatening tone, to show an intention to injure), to wash one’s dirty linen in public (to discuss or make public one’s quarrels) [12, 76], to show one’s cards (to make one’s intentions clear), to add oil to the fire (to make things worse), a dark horse (somebody who is secretive, or unusually reserved) [14, 108], to bend the knee (to submit to a stronger force, to obey submissively) [16, 134], to play the first fiddle (to be a leader in something), an old salt (experienced sailor) [11], et cetera.

Phraseological collocations are fully motivated word-groups, their meanings are easily deduced from meanings of their constituents [14, 108]. Phraseological collocations are not only motivated but contain one component used in its direct meaning, while the other is used metaphorically [16, 134]. The following phrases illustrate the examples of phraseological collocations: to come to power, to make it a rule, to take one’s seat [14, 108], to meet the requirements, to attain success. In this group of phraseological units substitution of certain components for their components for their synonyms which do not destroy the meaning of the metaphoric element is possible, for instance, to meet the requirements, to meet the needs, to meet the demand, to meet the necessity; to have success, to lose success [16, 134]. However, variability of member-words in phraseological collocations is strictly limited, for example, to bear a grudge may be changed into to bear malice, but not into to bear a fancy or to bear liking. Due to this, phraseological collocations are felt as possessing a certain degree of semantic inseparability [12, 76].

V. V. Vinogradov’s classification had a great influence on further investigations of phraseological units, though it was criticized. Firstly, his classification does not take into account the structural characteristics of phraseological units. Besides, the border line separating phraseological unities from phraseological fusions is indefinite and even subjective, because there are not given criteria for determining the degree of motivation of phraseological units. One and the same phraseological unit may appear motivated to one person (and therefore be labeled as a unity) and demotivated to another (and be regarded as a fusion). The more perfect one’s command of the language and one’s knowledge of its history, the fewer fusions one is likely to discover in it [9, 248].

2.3. Structural Classification of Phraseological Units

Professor A. I. Smirnitsky worked out structural classification of phraseological units, comparing them with words, that is his classification is based on the idea of word equivalence. He points out one-top units which he compares with derived words because derived words have only one root morpheme. He also points out two-top units which he compares with compound words because in compound words we usually have two root morphemes.

Among one-top units he points out three structural types:

1) Units of verb + preposition type equivalent to verbs in which the semantic and the grammatical centre coincide in the first constituent: to give up, to get up, to stand up, to come up, to speak up, to find out, to go out, to make out, to buy into, to sandwich in, to give in, to go on, to write down.

2) Units of the type to be tired equivalent to verbs which have their semantic centre in the second constituent and their grammatical centre in the first constituent: to be surprised, to be afraid, to be astonished, to be frightened. Some of these units remind the Passive Voice in their structure but they have different prepositions with them (to be surprised at, to be afraid of, to be astonished at, to be frightened of), while in the Passive Voice we can have only prepositions by or with. There are also units in this type which remind free word-groups of the type to be young: to be akin to, to be aware of, to be anxious for, et cetera. The difference between them is that, for instance, the adjective young can be used as an attribute and as a predicative in a sentence, while the nominal component in such units can act only as a predicative.

3) Prepositional-nominal phraseological units. These units are equivalents of unchangeable words: prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs, that is why they have no grammar centre, their semantic centre is the nominal part: in order to, as soon as, on account of, in the course of, in time, on the point, on the issue, by means of, et cetera.

Among two-top units Smirnitsky points out the following structural types:

1) Attributive-nominal units such as: a month of Sundays, grey matter, black art, best man,  first night, blind alley, short sight, short mind, a millstone round one’s neck and many others. Units of this type are noun equivalents and can be partly or completely idiomatic [11].

2) Verb-nominal phraseological units: to read between the lines, to sweep under the carpet (to try to conceal something), to fall in love. The grammar centre of such units is the verb, the semantic centre in many cases is the nominal component. These units can be completely idiomatic as well [11]: to burn one’s boats (to do something which makes it impossible to return to an earlier state), to vote with one’s feet (to indicate an opinion by being present or absent) [18].

3) Phraseological repetitions built on antonyms of formed by means of alliteration such as: cakes and ale, as busy as a bee, cool as a cucumber, bread and butter and others. Components in repetitions are joined by means of conjunctions. These units are equivalents of adverbs or adjectives and have no grammar centre. They can also be partly or completely idiomatic [11].

A. I. Smirnitsky’s classification was criticized for being sketchy and unsystematic. The influence of his classification is smaller than that of Vinogradov’s. Nevertheless, a few points in his treatment of phraseological units are of interest and helpful. Thus, establishing the class of one top units, Smirnitsky finds a place for such units as by heart, to give up, et cetera that have been for a long time the object of many discussions [14, 109].

2.4. Structural-Semantic Classification of Phraseological Units

There is another approach to phraseological units worked out by Professor A. V. Kunin. His classification system is the latest outstanding achievement in the Russian theory of phraseology. The classification is based on the combined structural-semantic principle and it considers the functional principle as well.

So A. V. Kunin subdivided phraseological units into the following four classes according to their function in communication determined by their structural-semantic characteristics [9, 250]:

1) Nominative phraseological units which denote things, objects, phenomena, processes, qualities, et cetera. They are termed nominative because the main function they perform is that of nomination that is they give names to things. Further nominative phraseological units are subdivided into:

a) substantival: crocodile tears, a bull in a China shop (a clumsy person), a bee in one’s bonnet (a fancy, a fixed idea), a tall order (a hard task);

b) adjectival: long in the tooth (old), hungry as a wolf/hunter (very hungry), poor as a church mouse (very poor), red as a cherry;

c) adverbial and prepositional: in the long run (finally, in conclusion), from head to foot, by hook or crook (by honest and dishonest means), by leaps and bounds (very quickly).

2) Nominative-communicative phraseological units. To this very class belong verbal phraseological units which can be used both as word collocations and sentences thus performing a communicative function: to make two ends meet (to have money barely enough for living), to keep one’s head above water (to fight with hardships), to have a flee in one’s ear (to be rejected or humiliated). Here belong phraseological units which can transform into passive construction: to break the ice (to do or say something to remove or reduce social tension) – The ice is broken; to cook one’s goose (to ruin oneself) – My goose is cooked; to cast the light (to make clear) – The light is cast.

3) Interjectional phraseological units which are neither nominative nor communicative and include interjectional word-groups: By love! Bless my heart and soul! Hold your horses! (keep quite!), A fine kettle of fish! (a disagreeable state of affairs), et cetera.

4) Communicative phraseological units which are represented by proverbs and sayings because they are sentences in their structural aspect. Proverbs are short aphoristic didactic rhythmically organized utterances. They are didactic because they aim at teaching somebody or giving advice or warning, for example: the proof of the pudding is in the eating (everything is tested by practice), Can the leopard change his sports? (Can a man change his nature?) Sayings are communicative phraseological units of non proverbial character: the coast is clear (the way is open, there is no danger), that’s another pair of shoes (this is a different thing), the tail wags the dog (a part controls the whole), et cetera.

All these classes are subdivided into subclasses according to the degree of their motivation, depending on whether the phraseological units are open (changeable) or closed (unchangeable), comparative or non-comparative, et cetera.

The classification system suggested by A. V. Kunin includes a considerable number of subtypes and gradations and objectively reflects the wealth of types of phraseological units existing in the language. It is based on truly scientific and modern criteria and represents an earnest attempt to take into account all the relevant aspects of phraseological units and combine them within the borders of one classification system [14, 111-112; 9, 250-251].

Conclusion

Thus, the results of the work are the following:

1. The description of phraseology as a linguistic discipline based on the works of Russian and foreign scientists and the definition of the term phraseological unit have been given.

2. The problem of distinguishing phraseological units from free word-groups has been examined, the criteria of such a distinction have been revealed.

3. Different classifications of phraseological units based on the different criteria of classification have been considered.

In conclusion of the work we can make the following deductions:

1. Phraseology is a relatively new branch of linguistics which attracts the attention of an increasing number of scholars, the subject matter of which is study and systematic description of the vocabulary units called phraseological units.

2. Phraseological units are reproduced and idiomatic (non-motivated) or partially motivated units built up according to the model of free word-groups or sentences and semantically and syntactically brought into correlation with words.

3. There are also another terms which are used by linguists besides the term phraseological unit. The existing terms reflect different views concerning the nature and essential features of phraseological units as distinguished from the so-called free word-groups. The term set-phrases implies that the basic criterion of differentiation is stability of the lexical components and grammatical structure of word-groups. The term idioms generally means that the essential feature of the linguistic units under consideration is ideomaticity or lack of motivation. This term usually used by English and American linguists is very often treated as synonymous with the term phraseological unit universally accepted in our country. The term word-equivalent stresses not only the semantic but also the functional inseparability of certain word-groups and their ability to function in speech as single words.

4. Phraseological units occupy an intermediate position between words and free word-groups. Being intermediate units, they have features of words, on the one hand, and features of free word-groups, on the other. So, it is necessary to point out the criteria distinguishing phraseological units. According to A. V. Kunin they are the following: structural separateness (or divisibility), stability of use, lexico-semantic stability, morphological stability, syntactic stability, idiomaticity (or lack of motivation), and criterion of function.

5. A phraseological unit is a complex phenomenon with a number of important features, which can be therefore approached from different points of view.  Hence, there is diversity of opinion concerning principles and criteria of classification of phraseological units. The classification systems considered in the present work reflect the wealth of types of phraseological units existing in the language. Among the large number of classifications of phraseological units the following classifications have the biggest value: classification of phraseological units according to their origin, classification of V. V. Vinogradov based on the semantic criterion, classifications of A. I. Smirnitsky based on the structural criterion, classification of A. V. Kunin based on the combined structural-semantic and functional principle.

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