Diplomatic handbook

The organisational structure is based on the Council of Heads of State and the Council of Heads of Governments and various consultative and coordinating bodies; and the Secretariat is in Minsk.

COUNCIL OF EUROPE

 

The Council of Europe was the first international organisation established in Europe after the 1939-45 war, and in terms of its Statute, signed on 5 May 1949 by the ten founder countries, its objective is to work for greater European unity, to uphold the principles of parliamentary democracy, to promote human values, and to improve living conditions. Currently its major concerns are human rights, education, culture and sport, social questions, youth unemployment, public health, environment and architectural heritage, local and regional authorities and legal affairs. In particular it aims to achieve a greater unity between its members for the purpose of safeguarding and realising the ideals and principles which are their common heritage and facilitating their economic and social progress: in short 'to promote European Cultural Identity continent-wide'.

Major achievements of the Council have been the European Convention on Human Rights, and the establishment of the European Commission and Court of Human Rights, whose jurisdiction has now been accepted as compulsory by thirty-four member states, and the European Convention on the Suppression of Terrorism, which inter alia defines those offences that shall not be regarded as political offences or as offences connected with a political offence or as offences inspired by political motives.

 

 

Economic Cooperation Organisation

The institutions of the Council are the Committee of Ministers of all member states which meets twice a year, a series of specialised committees, and the Parliamentary Assembly of 286 members, which is a consultative body and which meets three times a year.

Membership consists of Albania, Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia (FYR), Malta, Moldova, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, San Marina, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine and the United Kingdom. The Secretariat-General is in Strasbourg.

 

 

ECONOMIC COOPERATION ORGANISATION

 

The Economic Cooperation Organisation is a regional group for economic cooperation, consisting of Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. Subjects of special concern are transport, communications, trade, energy and the establishment of a regional payments system.

EUROPEAN FREE TRADE ASSOCIATION/

EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AREA

 

EFTA was founded in terms of the 1960 Stockholm Convention by seven Western European states which did not elect to join the EEC, with the principal objective of creating a free trade area in industrial goods, with agreed rules of origin. This was achieved in 1966, and in 1972/73 free trade agreements were concluded with the EC, creating the Western European Free Trade System. In 1992 agreement was reached between EFTA and EU member states for the creation of the European Economic Area establishing a system (with certain exceptions for the free movement of industrial goods, services, capital and people; and with the member countries adopting relevant EU rules. The institutions of EFTA - the Council of Ministers, the Standing Committee, the Committee of Members of Parliament, the Consultative Committee and the Court - are supplemented by the creation of joint EFTA/EU institutions. Membership of EFTA is Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland, and the Secretariat-General is in Geneva. The EFTA consists of the members of the European Union together with Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein.

 

 

 

 

EUROPEAN UNION

 

The EU consists of fifteen member states: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom. They are signatories of, or have subsequently acceded to, the 1957 Treaty of Rome, the 1986 Single European Act, the 1992 Maastricht Treaty on European Union, the 1997 Amsterdam Treaty and the various Treaties of Accession; and Association Agreements offering limited facilities and prospects for future membership have been entered into with various countries in the region. The member states of the EU have, together with Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway, created the European Economic Area with free movement of manufactured goods, capital, services and persons of the eighteen states. The EU has also created a Free Trade Area with Turkey and has undertaken a Euro-Mediterranean dialogue with twelve states of the region, including Jordan, on the basis of the 1996 Barcelona Conference.

The Treaty of Rome 'calls upon the other peoples of Europe who share their ideals to join in their efforts', but its stated aim of 'reducing the differences existing between the various regions and the backwardness of the less favoured regions' has, paradoxically, restricted, until the present time, the prospect of membership to those countries that can contribute financially to this process, whilst excluding those which would compete for resources with existing recipient countries. The principle of 'deepening' thus precluded any substantial 'widening', but this policy was radically altered in July 1997 when the President of the Commission presented his 'Agenda 2000' in which he accepted that 'the Union’s environment is changing fast, both internally and externally', and added that the Union must set about adapting, developing and reforming itself. Enlargement represented a historic turning point for Europe, an opportunity it must seize for the sake of its security, its economy, its culture and its status in the world. The Commission recommended that, of the ten Associated Central and Eastern European countries applying for membership, accession negotiations should start with Hungary, Poland, Estonia, Czech Republic, and Slovenia, and also with Cyprus. Subsequent negotiations for accession will be held with Bulgaria, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania and Slovakia. The next Intergovernmental Conference would consider, inter alia, institutional reforms and the reorganisation of the Common Agricultural Policy.

The objective of the original six members of the Treaty of Rome was to remove barriers to trade and create a process leading to 'ever closer union' (preamble to the treaty); and this was to be achieved principally by 'establishing a common market and progressively approximating the economic policies of member states' (Article 2). In the words of Jean Monnet, architect of the Community, 'We are not creating an association of states: we are creating a union of peoples', and the administrative and decision-making procedures of the European Economic Community were accordingly structured so as to create a process leading towards the goal of unification.

This political purpose was spelled out in 1969 in The Hague where the objective of 'paving the way for a united Europe' was recognised, and was reaffirmed in 1983 in the 'Stuttgart Solemn Declaration'; and in 1986 in the Single European Act, member states undertook 'to transform relations as a whole among their states into a European Union' (preamble), and stipulated that 'the European Communities and European Political Co-operation (i.e. harmonisation of foreign policies) would have as their objectives to contribute together to making concrete progress towards European Unity' (Article 1). A major provision of the Act designed to further the process of unification was the diminution of the blocking veto powers of individual member governments by the extension of the system of qualified majority voting in the Council of Ministers.

The process of creating an economic involvement and dependence that would go far to meet most member states’ ultimate goal of European unity was carried a major stage further in 1992 with the signing at Maastricht of the Treaty on European Union, which set as its objective the establishment of 'a European Union ... a new stage in the process of creating an ever closer union among the peoples of Europe'. Provision was made for the Union to become a reality through, inter alia, the establishment of economic and monetary union, including the creation of a single currency, and the introduction of Union citizenship. Moreover, the Union would 'assert its identity in the international scene, in particular through the implementation of a common foreign and security policy'.

The Maastricht Treaty, unlike the American Constitution, did not list the specific functions that would be transferred to a central authority, on the assumption that the European Court of Justice would determine what responsibilities such an authority should assume in order to fulfil its agreed objective of creating the Union. It specified, however, that the goal of member states - namely a political union - constituted a binding obligation. The Treaty introduced a dynamic concept into the process of integration: it obliged governments to take further steps towards the goal of union, and it constituted a source of European Union Law, and an operative text. Together with the Treaty of Rome and the Single European Act, the Treaties of Maastricht and Amsterdam could be interpreted as marking the transition from confederation to de facto federation of a core group of countries which have agreed to combine their national currencies and economic policies by the year 2002: the end of a 40-year process of unification and the beginning of a process of negotiating a structure and system of government for the present and future members of the Union.

Since the signing of the Treaty of Rome, an increasing degree of cooperation has taken place between the countries of Western Europe in general, and within the Union in particular, where a high degree of standardisation and conformity has been achieved. The aim of establishing the 'Four Freedoms of Movement' - of manufactured goods, services, capital and people - was, in the main, completed by the target date of January 1993, and non-tariff barriers to trade have been largely eliminated. Agriculture is centrally regulated and remains more a matter of politics than economics. However, substantial progress has been made in the transfer of resources from industrialised to agriculturally dependent countries and in the transfer of financial assistance to the less developed regions of the Union (the 'cohesion' policy), thus encouraging the stated aim of 'economic convergence'.

The introduction of the single currency - the 'euro' - will help to ensure the permanence of the Union and will come into effect in those countries that so elect and are deemed to meet the Maastricht criteria in 1999, their national currencies ceasing to be valid in the year 2002. The criteria are: that the ratio between the 1997 budget deficit and GDP should not exceed 3 per cent; that the 1997 ratio between the national debt and GDP should not exceed 60 per cent; that the 1997 inflation rate should not exceed 1.5 per cent of the average of the three best performing member countries; that interest rates should be within 2 per cent of the three best performing states; and that currency rates should be maintained within 2.25 per cent (or in some cases 15 per cent) of the EMS margins for the past two years. A 'stability pact' aims to ensure that member states utilising the common currency maintain fiscal discipline.

In the field of foreign policy and security (the Second Pillar) the Amsterdam Treaty - has established a Foreign Affairs Secretariat with the Secretary-General to the Council of Ministers as spokesman or spokeswoman. Decisions are taken by qualified majority voting with provision for a veto if a country's vital interests are threatened; and an element of 'flexibility' allows members to formulate their own foreign policy decisions even though the others may not wish to be associated with them. Foreign trade policy and 'dialogue' relations with e.g. ASEAN and the Group of Bio are among the Commission's foreign policy responsibilities, and an extensive network of representation abroad has been established.

In the 'Third Pillar' of Justice and Home Affairs, immigration, asylum, visa policy (and eventually the removal of frontiers, under the Schengen System) are dependent on a unanimous vote in the Council, whilst Britain, Denmark and Ireland have the right to opt out. Defence is, in principle, entrusted to the Western European Union which is described in the Maastricht Treaty as 'an integral part of the European Union', but in practice remains a separate multilateral treaty organisation.

The institutions of the Union are:

 

The Commission (of the European Communities) which consists of twenty members nominated by the governments of the member states but acting independently of them. France, Germany, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom nominate two members each, and the other countries one member each. The Commission has the sole right of initiating measures to be adopted by the Union in those matters relating to the original European Economic Community; and in terms of the Treaty on European Union has the additional right of initiating proposals in the fields of foreign policy, security, justice and home affairs. The Council of Ministers in some instances asks the Commission to initiate certain measures. Each Commissioner is appointed by his or her member state for five years, and his or her responsibility for a particular function of the administration is allocated by the President of the Commission.

 

The Council of the European Union, which consists of ministers nominated by, and representing, each of the fifteen member states considers and can veto or amend proposals from the Commission. Decisions are in most cases taken by qualified (i.e. weighted) majority vote, but in some unanimity is required. Voting is weighted in terms of countries rather than in terms of populations, the United Kingdom, France, Germany and Italy having ten votes, Spain eight, Belgium, the Netherlands, Greece and Portugal five, Austria and Sweden four, Finland, Ireland and Denmark three, and Luxembourg two. Twenty-six votes constitute a blocking minority.

 

Tile European Parliament consists of 626 members elected by direct franchise on the basis of ninety-nine members from Germany; eighty-seven each from France, Italy and the United Kingdom; sixty-four from Spain; thirty-one from the Netherlands; twenty-five each from Belgium, Greece and Portugal; twenty-two from Sweden; twenty-one from Austria; sixteen from Denmark and Finland; fifteen from Ireland and six from Luxembourg. The Parliament has the right of consultation and discussion; it may propose changes in the Community Budget, amend it in certain details, or even reject it; and has the power to dismiss the Commission (something it has never done). It has competence regarding new membership of the Union, and effective blocking power mainly in matters relating to the internal market, and to some extent in matters of foreign policy, treaties and internal security.

 

The European Court of Justice, which consists of sixteen independent judges, is the supreme Court in all matters relating to the Union and generally in the interpretation of the Union Treaties. It is also the custodian of 'a new legal order' and interprets the law in such a way as 'to make concrete progress towards European unity'. It has the power to levy fines on the recommendation of the Commission on states which have 'failed to fulfil an obligation' of the Treaty of Rome (Article 171).

In addition to the Economic and Social Committee and the Council of the Regions there are:

 

The European Council which consists of the Heads of State or of Government of member states of the European Union accompanied by their Ministers for Foreign Affairs who meet at least twice a year, their main purpose being to determine overall policy.

 

The Presidency of the Council, which rotates every six months between member states. Whichever member has the Presidency presides also over all the various Council and committee meetings and determines their agenda, and its Foreign Minister delivers the opening speech to the European Parliament. A 'Troika' of the past, present and future Presidents represents the Union in security and foreign policy initiatives where appropriate.

 

The Committee of Permanent Representatives (COREPER), which consists of two committees: one of the Permanent Representatives (i.e. Ambassadors) of the member states accredited to the European Union, and the other comprising the deputy permanent representatives. Both meet every week, their main task being to process and prepare material for discussion and decision by the EU Council. They also carry out functions delegated by the Council.

 

A special relationship was established between members of the Community and their former dependent territories through the Yaoundé, Arusha and subsequently Lomé Conventions. The current convention (Lomé  IV) runs from 1990-2000; its members are the fifteen EU states and over seventy ACP (Africa, Caribbean and Pacific) states, and it has a budget of 12,000 million euros. Of this amount the European Development Fund (EDF) will provide 10,800 million euros mainly in the form of grants for national and regional programmes, but also to compensate for losses in agricultural exports (STABEX) and to assist mono-economies based on mining (SYSMIN). The European Investment Bank (EIB) will provide 1,200 million euros in the form of loans for specific projects. In terms of trade, the EU will provide duty-free access for nearly all ACP exports, and preferential prices for quotas of sugar. The institutions of the Convention are the ACP-EU Council of Ministers which meets annually, the ACP-EU Ambassadors Committee which meets every six months, and the EU-ACP Joint Assembly composed of delegates of ACP countries and members of the European Parliament in equal numbers, which meets once a year. The ACP Secretariat is at 451 Ave. Georges Henri, Brussels.

 

 

 

GULF COOPERATION COUNCIL

 

The Gulf Cooperation Council was founded in 1981 and its policy was set out in its Charter which was ratified in 1982. The member states are: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. The essential purpose is to achieve coordination, cooperation and integration in all economic, social and cultural affairs. Comparable regulations have been established in economic and financial affairs; commerce, customs and communication; education and culture; social and health affairs; media and tourism, and legislative and administrative affairs; whilst agreement has been reached on stimulating scientific and technological progress in industry, agriculture and water resources. In terms of the Unified Economic Agreement, tariff barriers between the six will be abolished, and Gulf nationals will be free to set up industries and to enter into contracts in any state with equal rights. In addition, plans are in place for a Joint Defence Force for Rapid Deployment.

The institutions of the Gulf Cooperation Council are the Supreme Council of Heads of State which meets annually, and the Council of Ministers which meets every three months. The Secretariat-General is in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

 

 

 

INDIAN OCEAN ASSOCIATION FOR

REGIONAL COOPERATION

 

Established in 1997, the IONARC aims to increase cooperation in matters of mutual non-military interest. Members are Australia, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mauritius, Mozambique, Oman, Singapore, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Tanzania and Yemen.

 

 

ISLAMIC CONFERENCE ORGANISATION

 

The Islamic Conference Organisation was founded in 1971 and consists of fifty-four member states together with Zanzibar. The Central African Republic, Togo and the 'Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus' have Observer status. Its aim is the promotion of Islamic interests and solidarity in all their aspects, based on the Declaration of Lahore of 1974 which confirmed the full national rights of the Palestinian people in their homeland, the decision of the 1975 conference to establish a permanent committee (the AI-Quds Committees) to pursue the question of the future of Jerusalem, and the Casablanca Charter of 14 January 1984 which established committees for regional reconciliation and concord to settle differences between members.

The ICO has maintained an active role in international relations, exemplified by the Mecca Declaration of 28 January 1979 concerning Afghanistan, and the efforts to mediate in the Gulf. Conferences of Heads of State take place annually, and meetings of Foreign Ministers take place annually or more often as circumstances demand. Of the various subsidiary organisations, the Committee on Economic Affairs seeks to promote mutual economic cooperation and solidarity among Moslem countries. The Secretariat is in Jeddah.

 

 

 

LATIN AMERICAN ECONOMIC

ORGANISATIONS

 

The Latin American Integration Association (LAIA or ALADI) was established in 1980 by the new Treaty of Montevideo, which superseded the 1960 Treaty which created the Latin American Free Trade Area (LAFTA). The purpose of the new treaty is to pursue the integration process in order to promote the harmonious and balanced socio-economic development of the region; the long-term objective of such a process being the gradual and progressive establishment of a Latin American common market (article 1). The scope of the new treaty is greater than that of the original one, but the methods of achieving closer cooperation are more flexible, and in the form of a framework for pragmatic development, rather than a fixed timetable for achieving specific objectives. The treaty makes provision for regional tariff preferences, regional and sub-regional cooperational agreements, assistance to less-developed member states, and the establishment of relations with other regional economic organisation. The Secretariat is in Montevideo, and the member states are the same as for the previous treaty, namely Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela. Policy is determined by the Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs of each of the member countries which meets when appropriate, whilst the Committee of Representatives is the permanent executive body. LAIA is essentially an 'umbrella' organisation which oversees and helps to coordinate the various sub-regional organisations of Latin America.

Complementary organisations are the Sistema Econуmico Latino-americano (SELA) which meets at intervals in order to coordinate economic planning and policies and whose membership includes nearly all Latin American countries; and the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean which is a centre for economic research and a source of economic and social information. The seat of the Commission is Santiago, Chile.

 

The Andean Integration System envisages the creation of an Andean Community, and is the successor to the Andean Group (Grupo Andino) which was formed in 1969 as a sub-regional group in order to provide a more cohesive economic unit within the Latin American Free Trade Area - now the Latin American Integration Association. The aim is freedom of movement of goods, services and capital transfers, and the establishment of a Free Trade Area with MERCOSUR. Members are Bolivia, Ecuador and Colombia (which established a Free Trade Area in 1993), Peru and Venezuela.

 

MERCOSUR/MERCOSUL was established in 1991 by the Treaty of Asunciуn for the purposes of establishing, by the year 2006, a Customs Union including the free movement of goods, services, capital and labour, and for promoting regional investment. Member states are Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. By 1995, 85 per cent of tariffs had been eliminated, with some exceptions permitted for Paraguay and Uruguay. Free Trade Agreements have been entered into with Chile and Bolivia.