Punctuation in english language

  Do not use a comma within clauses, dividing between subject and predicate or separating between parts of compound subjects and compound predicates. In other words, do not use a comma before a coordinating conjunction to separate only two words, two phrases or two dependent clauses. In the following examples, no comma is needed as they are all short one-clause sentences with no series of more than two consecutive parts. 
No: The students and the teachers, celebrated the end of the school year. 
No: The students finished their tests, and went out for a break. 
No: The students wanted to study French, and Spanish. 

         3. Uses of the Quotation marks in English writing

  Quotation marks are important punctuation marks in English that have four different uses. Whenever you quote words, ideas or texts taken from an external source, whether spoken or appearing in print, you have to set them off with quotation marks. This accredits the source to being the origin of the text, a compulsory practice in academic writing, and a recommended one in virtually any type of writing. In standard academic writing, from an essay to a thesis, you must also provide a reference to the actual source of the quote, detailing how the reader may track back to it.

   In English, there are two types of quotes: single and double. Sometimes quotes are called "inverted commas» (inverted commas). Probably the same use of those and other quotes. However, be aware that registration in writing citations or direct speech used by any one type of quotes.

Quotation marks are used:

1. To indicate the beginning and end of direct speech and quotations. Opening quotes, as opposed to the Russian language, placed on the line of the upper edge lines: 

          Ratterer asked Clyde, ‘Would -

      you recognise your uncle if you   saw him?’

    

2) To highlight the titles of books, magazines, newspapers, plays, films, etc. With the same purpose in the printed text uses italics:

I read ‘Emma’ by Jane Austin last week.    

Keep in mind that the names of books of the Bible in English, never taken in quotes:

           Matthew    

            The Book Matthew  

     We note in particular the absence of the English version of the example given the absence of a comma after the word and the absence of a preposition in the title of the books of the Old and New Testament (The New Testament; The Old Testament).  

3)  Sometimes to separate the names of ships, hotels, houses of particular names, etc.: 

  The ‘Star of India’ sails on Tuesday.     

      ‘The Crown’ is the best hotel in town.    

      ‘The Empire State Building’ is the best-known skyscraper in        

      America. 

4) For quotation within quotation, while for the internal citation is used quotes that differ from the ground Citation:

“Good heavens”, thought Jane. -

           “What shall I do if he says    

           ‘Hello’ to me?”      

5) To highlight the word, which is not consumed in its usual sense:

I don’t want to hear any ‘dirty’ words coming from you.      

           4. Uses of the Apostrophe in English writing

    The apostrophe is an important punctuation mark in English that actually has three different uses, a fact which contributes to the many errors English writers often make using it. In English, it is used rather widely and you cannot avoid using it but you should not just stick in anywhere you want, as misuse of its basic uses may lead to perceiving your writing as weak, uneducated or even childish. 
     An apostrophe indicates to skip one or more letters in the word (digit number). The apostrophe is used:

1) For the formation of reduced verb forms: 

I am  = I’m I have = I’ve do not = don’t

he is = he’s I shall = I’ll  does not = doesn’t

she is = she’s you are = you’re have not = haven’t 

2) Sometimes when writing abbreviated words:

‘flu = influenza flue

3) To send a letter to the distorted pronunciation in speech, for example:

meetin’ = meeting; ‘em = them; ‘ave = have;

Sometimes when writing a year if the two first two digits are omitted: '02 within the meaning of 2002;

4) For the formation of our everyday nouns:

   - Designating a person or animal, for example: 

a boy’s book           

boys’ books 

a woman’s dress  

women’s dresses 

a horse’s shoe  

        horses’ shoes

       -In expressions, denoting the time period, for example:

an hour’s walk  

      three years’ absence

     -In the names of private houses, shops, businesses, etc. with the value of accessories:

       I’m going to the baker’s (my aunt’s; the Smiths’; Smith and Brown’s).  

     5) The formation of plural words usually have no plural form:

It seems an interesting idea, but there are a lot of

     6) Education in plural names of letters and numbers:

    He writes b’s instead of d’s.

It was in the early 1960’s. 

              

               5. Uses of the Semicolon in English writing

    The semicolon (;) is a punctuation mark in English separating elements but used much less than the comma. It is more often used in more advanced extended sentences and adds a formal tone. Its name implies that it indicates a separation that is neither full (as indicated by the period), nor minute (as indicated by a comma). The semicolon denotes a half-way separation between elements close in meaning.

   The semicolon is used:

1. Instead of (or instead of a comma) between the parts of a compound sentence connected to the union or conjunction less bond. In such cases, composed suggestions grammatically independent, but the semantic relation between them closer than that between the simple sentences, separated from each other point, and less than originally composed between sentences, separated by commas. For example: 

Some people work best in the - mornings; others do better in the -evenings.  

2. To separate subordinate clauses from each other if they all depend on the same main clause:

You may use the sports facilities on condition that your subscriptions are paid regularly; that you arrange for all necessary cleaning to be carried out; that you undertake to make good any damage. 

3. To spread a simple sentence that contains a lot of commas are mentioned, for its division into its constituent parts. For example:

You will have full charge of the - poultry, sheep and rabbits; also give a hand with the milking when required.   
 
 

         6. Uses of the Question mark in English writing

   The question mark (?) is a terminal punctuation mark in English usually used at the end of a sentence with no extra period. It turns a sentence into a query and can also be used to indicate uncertainty, tentativeness or incredulity. Do not use more than one question mark at the end of a question in formal or academic writing. The question mark is usually used in dialogues and narratives and less so in formal articles.

         1) Use the question mark when posing a direct query in an interrogative sentence. This denotes that the speaker is seeking information.

                            Are there any letters for me this morning ? 
                                When did you finish writing that report ? 
 
       2) Use the question mark to turn a statement into a question. This denotes that the speaker is assuming or hoping for a certain reply. 
                               

                               You promise to finish going through these invoices ? 
                               She didn't actually quit her job ? 
   

      3)  Use the question mark in statements ending with a word inflected as a query and with question tags. 
                                   Just leave these papers on my desk, OK ? 
                                So you got a promotion, eh ? 
     4)  Use the question mark after a direct question which is inserted into a statement. If the question comes at the end, separate it with a comma. Capitalization of the question after the comma is used for extreme emphasis but is rarely recommended. 
                                  

               Her boss wondered, Was she really doing her job the best she could ? 
                           [question capitalized for extreme emphasis] 

       5) You can use a question mark with italics to show shock or incredulity.

                            She said what ?

       
    6) To end direct questions, requiring a response.

                                May I borrow your copy of the book?

                               What did you think of the play? 

       7. Uses of the Exclamation mark in English writing

      The exclamation point ( !) is a terminal punctuation mark in English and is usually used at the end of a sentence with no extra period. It can turn a simple indicative or declarative sentence into a strong command or reflect an emotional outburst. 

      1) The exclamation mark is placed after the words and sentences, re-enabling strong emotions: surprise, anger, joy, fear, etc. The exclamation point can be after a single word, several words, or at the end of the offer:

                               Help! Throw me a rope!  

                      How nice! 

                            Oh! , Aw!

      

     2) If you put an exclamation point after one or two words, the subsequent sentence can begin with small letters: 

                       Stop! we’ve left the light out!

       

      3) In dialogue, use the exclamation point to indicate a strong command in an imperative sentence. This denotes a firm and direct order.

                       Clean the elephant enclosure now ! 
                           Look out, there's an elephant running behind you ! 
   

      4)  In dialogue, use the exclamation point to convey an emphatic declaration, which can indicate any of the following emotions: 
                             Shock: "There's been a terrible accident !" 
                          Excitement: "Oh my God ! What a fantastic birthday gift !" 
                         Urgency: "Drive carefully ! Watch out for traffic signs ! If you don't, you could die ! 
                        Vehemence: "Down with the new anti-elephant laws !" 
                       Astonishment: "I just can't believe what she's done ! It's simply beyond me !" 
 
     5) You can use an exclamation point with italics to show shock or incredulity.

                  She said what !

     6) To add emphasis to the statement.

                      I loved the play!

             8. Uses of the Colon in English writing

 
    The colon (:) is a very useful punctuation mark in English that has some important uses. The basic function of the colon is to draw the reader's attention to the text that follows it. There is usually a question-answer relationship between the two elements separated by the colon. As a result, it serves as a rather powerful rhetoric device writers use to arouse curiosity or even suspense within the reader, who is thus motivated to continue reading.

   1) Before enumerated homogeneous members, which are preceded by generalizing the word:

           My sister finds all school subjects easy: French, history, maths, everything.

  2) Before the second sentence, if it explains, extends, or refine preserves what has been said in the first sentence: 

      His refusal did not surprise me: I had expected it. 

  3) After the words of the author before the direct speech is a long text, 4) before the transfer, according to a listed:  

           Please, send the following items:

  - birth certificate;        

  - passport;           

  4) After inputting a quote:  

         In the words of Oscar Wilde: ‘I can resist anything except temptation.’  

  5) In the headers to separate the main title from the subtitle:  

         Punctuation: Colon

  6)  Before a list, summary or quote.

        I could only find three of the ingredients: sugar, flour and coconut.

        With the exception of one's, pronouns (its, his, hers) do not require an apostrophe.

     7) To complete a statement of fact.

          There are only three kinds of people: the good, the bad and the ugly.  

  9. Uses of the Hyphen, Dash, Brackets, Capital Letters and Ellipses in English writing 

  Hyphen is used between the words in the formation of compound words.

  In English, words can be written separately, together or hyphenated. As a rule, are written with a hyphen:

   1) Compound words, the second of which begins with a capital letter:

         Anglo-Saxon, Franco-Italian 

   2) Compound words, one component of which ends in-ing:

      dining-room 

      sewing-machine

 

3) The numerals such as twenty-one - twenty and one 

4) Сompound adjectives formed from numerals and substance-negative with a value of time and space: three-page - trehstra-boundary; ten-year - ten years;

      5) Сompound adjectives, such as: world-famous - world-renowned LIMITED; electro-magnetic - electromagnetic.

      6) In compound adjectives, the second component which is formed from the noun with the ending-ed or is stradatel-nym participle: blue-eyed - blue; heart-broken - killed by the first-Rem

      7) In groups of words used as a qualifier in front of there, surprising:

       an out-of-work lorry driver

     8) In compound words with an accent on first base (they can also pi-satsya together), compound words with an accent on second base are written separately:

                     book-case   make-up