Шпаргалка по "Стилистике английского языка"

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1.1. General Notes on Style and Stylistics. Arnold defines stylistics as a branch of linguistics, investigating the principles and effect of choice and usage of phonetic, lexical, grammatical and other language means with the purpose of transmitting thoughts and emotions in different circumstances of communication. Lingvostylistics is a branch of general linguistics. It deals mainly with 2 interdependent tasks: 1. Special language media which secure the desirable effect of the utterance. Different expressive means (EMs) and stylistic devices (SDs). Investigation of SD and EM touches upon such general language problems as: a. The authentic function of language (наст ф-ия яз).

b.Synonymous ways of rendering the same idea. c. Emotionally colored words. d. The interrelation between language and thought. The individual manner of the author.

2. Different types of texts The types of texts are called functional styles of language. The field of investigation of functional styles considers the following issues: a.Spoken and written varieties of language. b.The literary standard language.c.The constituents (компонент) of text larger than a sentence.

Style is derived from "stilus" (Lat.) which meant a short stick sharp at one end and flat at the other which was used by the Romans for writing. Now style also denotes an individual manner of making use of language. Style is a quality of language which communicates precisely emotions, thoughts peculiar to the author. Style - a set of characteristics by which we distinguish this particular author from another one.

Individual style is a writer's individual manner of using language means to achieve the desired effect. Stylistics is regarded as a language science which deals with the results of the act of communication. Lexical stylistics – studies functions of direct and figurative meanings, also the way contextual meaning of a word is realized in the text. LS deals with various types of connotations – expressive, evaluative, emotive; neologisms, dialectal words and their behavior in the text. - Grammatical stylistics – is subdivided into morphological and syntactical. MS views stylistic potential of grammatical categories of different parts of speech. SS studies syntactic, expressive means, word order and word combinations, different types of sentences and types of syntactic connections. Also deals with origin of the text, its division on the paragraphs, dialogs, direct and indirect speech, the connection of the sentences, types of sentences.  Phonostylistics – phonetical organization of prose and poetic texts. Here are included rhythm, rhythmical structure, rhyme, alliteration, assonance and correlation of the sound form and meaning. Also studies deviation in normative pronunciation.  Functional S (s. of decoding) – deals with all subdivisions of the language and its possible use (newspaper, colloquial style). - stylistics of encoding - The shape of the information (message) is coded and the addressee plays the part of decoder of the information contained in message.

1.2 Euphemism - a word or a phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one. Euphemisms are synonyms of the coarse or unpleasant idea. Euphemisms are synonyms whish aim at producing a deliberately mild effect. The origin of the term euphemism comes from Greek eu – which means well and phemi – speaking. Means to speak well. 

Spheres of application: 1. Religious «die» euphemisms: to pass away, to be no more, more facetious (шутливый) to kick the bucket, to give up the ghost (испустить дух), go West 2. Moral - Fork it over (раскошелиться), Cough it up! Pay the piper (взять расходы на себя)! 3. Medical mad house - lunatic asylum (психиатр больница) - mental hospital, idiots– imbeciles – and the feebleminded (умственно-неполноц) became law – medium – and high-grade mental defectives. The insane became persons of unsound mind and now they are called mentally ill patients., 4. Political. Are understatements the aim of which to mislead public opinion and to express what is unpleasant in a more delicate manner. The word ‘capitalist’ is ‘free enterprises”. Profits replaced by ‘savings’. ‘unemployment’ – ‘the building up the human reserves’. Parliamentary profit – savings. They soon become closely associated with the referent (the object named) and give way to a newly coined word or combinations of words which throws another veil over an unpleasant or indelicate concept.

Hyperbole - a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration of a certain feature, e.g. one per millennium, scared to death. Hyperbole sharpens the reader's ability to make the logical assessment of the utterance. In it’s extreme form it is carried to an illogical degree sometimes adubsurdum.  F.e. O’Hebry. He was so tall that I wasn’t sure he had a face. A thousand pardons. Scared to death. I’ve told you fifty times.

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9.1 Special Literary Vocabulary (Barbarisms and Foreignisms, literary coinages including nonce-words)

Barbarisms are words of foreign origin. They bear the appearance of a borrowing and are felt as something alien to the native language. The great majority of these borrowed words form part of the rank-and-file (рядовой) of the English vocabulary. Most of them have corresponding English synonyms, (chic) f.e. shik - stylish, bomond. . They are given in the body of the dictionary.

Distinguishing between barbarisms and foreign words proper: 1. Barbarisms are words which have already become facts of the English language and are part-and-parcel (неотъемлемая часть) of the English word-stock, though they remain on the outskirts of the literary vocabulary. They are given in the body of the dictionary. 2. Though they're used for certain stylistic purposes they do not belong to the English vocabulary and they're not registered in English dictionaries. Some foreign words fulfill a terminological function. They are called terminological borrowings: blitzkrieg, soviet, kolkhoz, perestroika; They do not have synonyms.

Barbarisms and foreign words are used in various styles of language but are also found in the style of belles-lettres and publicistic style. They have no synonyms.

Literary Coinages (including Nonce-Words) The coining of the new words arises first of all with the need to designate new concepts resulting from the development of science and also with the need of to express nuances meaning called forth (вызванная) by deeper understanding of the nature of the phenomenon in question. The   first   type   of   newly   coined   words   designate   newly   born   concepts   and   are   called terminological coinages. The second type is used to seek expressive utterance. They are called stylistic coinages.

Blending (смеш) of 2 words by curtailing (сокращ) the end of the first component or the beginning of the second component: music comedy, cinemactress, avigation, smog, galumph, chortle. Means of coining 1. most of the literary bookish coinages are built by means of affixation and word compounding. They can also be built by the means of conversion, derivation and change of meaning. New terms are imposed on old words. The new meaning may coexist with old one. New meaning may drive out the old meaning. f.e. orbit - orbital, land - lander. or relagis, moisturise. antihero. musicdom. lifemantship. showmanship. Another means of word-building is blending of 2 words into one by curtailing the end of the first component or the beginning of the 2nd. For example: music+comedy = musicocomedy, cinemactress, alligation

Nonce-word is another type of neologism. That is a word coined to suit one particular occasion.

Neologism is a new word or a new meaning for an established word concept. These words are created to designate (называть) some insignificant subjective idea or evaluation of a thing or phenomenon and generally become moribund (отмирающий).

9.2 Particular ways of combining parts of the utterance (Asyndeton) is connection between parts of a sentence or between sentences without any formal sign which becomes a stylistic device if there is a deliberate omission of connectives, where it is generally expected to be according to the norms of the literary language.  e.g. Bicket did not answer (as) his throat felt too dry. Such structures make the utterance sound like one syntactical unit to be pronounced in one breath group (на одном дыхании) with a definite intonation pattern.

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2.1 Expressive means (EMs) and Stylistic Devices (SDs). The expressive means of a language are: it's phonetic, morphological, word-building, lexical, phraseological and syntactical forms, which exist in language as a system for the purpose of logical or/and emotional intensification of the utterance.

Expressive means introduce connotational (stylistic, non-denotative) meanings into utterances. Phonetic means are the most powerful ones: intonation, pause, pitch (тон), melody, stress, drawing out (вырывать) certain syllables, whispering, a sing-song manner etc. Morphological expressive means provide a kind of emphasis. (words&morphemes) The word-building expressive means', the diminutive suffixes, nonce words, formed with non-productive suffixes. Lexical means: interjections, slang words, archaic, obsolete (выш из уп) (poetic words), phraseological units, proverbs, sayings, catch-words. They make speech more emphatic. A chain of expressive synonymic words always contains at least one neutral synonym. A chain of expressive synonyms used in a single utterance creates the effect of climax (gradation).  At the syntactic level there are many constructions which also reveal a certain degree of logical or emotional emphasis. Such constructions stand in opposition to their neutral equivalents.  A stylistic device is the use of any of a variety of techniques to give an auxiliary meaning, idea, or feeling to the literal or written. (tropes, figures of speech) unlike expressive means are not language phenomena. They are formed in speech and most of them do not exist out of context. According to principles of their formation, stylistic devices are grouped into phonetic, lexico-semantic and syntactic types. Basically, all stylistic devices are the result of revaluation of neutral words, word-combinations and syntactic structures. Revaluation makes language units obtain connotations and stylistic value. A stylistic device is the subject matter of stylistic semasiology.

Repetition is the deliberate use of a word or phrase more than a once in a sentence to emphasize certain elements in the mind of the reader or listener. Rhyme - The repetition of identical or similar sounds, usually at the end of words.Most stylistic devices display an application of 2 meanings: The ordinary meaning is referential (ссылка). The special meaning is contextual. The contextual meaning takes precedence over the referential meaning. The interrelation between expressive means and stylistic devices: 1. Expressive means have a greater degree of predictability. 2. Expressive means follow the natural course of thought intensifying it by means used in language. 3. Stylistic devices are more informative in character and require a certain effort to decode their meaning and purpose. 4. Stylistic devices must be regarded as a special code which has to be well-known to the reader in order to be decoded easily.

Stylistic Devices Alliteration Allusion Anaphora Antithesis Hyperbole Litotes Metaphor Metonymy Onomatopoeia Repetition Rhetorical Question Simile Synecdoche

2.2 Peculiar Use of Set-Expressions

Clichés - an expression that has become hackneyed and trite (избитый). Men of letters use the stock of expressive phrases contained in the language naturally and easily and well-known phrases never produce the impression of being cliches. A cliché has lost originality, ingenuity and impact by long over use.  F.e. rose a dreams of youth. The patrol of little feet. Rising expectations. Growing awareness. it's got to get worse before it gets better. To think unthinkable thoughts. And it is there for necessary to avoid anything that may be called by that name.

Proverbs and Sayings are facts of languafe. They are collected in special dictionaries. Their typical features are: rhythm, rhyme, sometimes alliteration, but their main characteristic feature is their shortness. The peculiarity of the use of a proverb lies in the fact that the actual wording becomes a pattern. Thus the proverb presupposes a simultaneous application of two meanings the primary meaning and an extended meaning drown from the context. F.e. to cut one’s coat according to one’s cloths. Make a man healthy, wealthy and wise. Brevity manifests itself in the omission of connectives. F.e. out of sight out of mind. The main feature distinguishing proverbs and saying from ordinary utterance remains their semantic aspect. The main feature distinguishing proverbs and sayings from ordinary utterances remains their literal (буквальн) meaning, which is suppressed by transferred meaning. But they may also be used with modifications. Proverbs and sayings will never loose their freshness and vigor. They may also be used with modifications. F.e. safe and sound. In Byron’s verse: a live don Juan for the present, safe thus not sound. Even decomposing of the units may be used. F.e. it’s no use crying over spilt milk. Come! Milks spilt. F.e. it’s good fishing in troubled waters. The water’s may remain sufficiently troubled for somebody’s fishing to be profitable. F.e. the proof of the pudding the in the eating – the headline – proof of the pudding. Lewis Karol works – take care of the pens and the pounds will take care of themselves – take care of the sense and the sounds will take care of themselves.

Epigrams 1) Epigram is a stylistic device, akin (близкий) to a proverb, the only difference being that epigrams are coined by individuals whose names we know, while proverbs are the coinage of people. While using an epigram we make a reference to it’s author. 2) Epigrams always have a literary bookish air about them which distinguishes from proverbs. 3) They have a greater degree of independence, a generalised function, they are also self-sufficient. 4) The most сharacteristic feature of epigrams is that the sentence gets accepted as a whole word-combination and often becomes part of the language. 5) Like proverbs they can be expanded to abstract notions. 6) Epigrams are often confused with aphorisms and paradoxes. The distinction is very subtle. Real epigrams are true to fact. F.e. a god that can be understood is no god. It is brief, generalizing, witty, and can be expended in its application. F.e. Byron in the days of old men made manners. Manners now made man.  Another characteristic feature is brevity.

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4.1 Meaning from stylistics point of view. Types of meaning (logical, emotive, nominal) In general linguistics we speak about conceptual (абстрактный) meaning. In stylistics the meaning is realized through text or context. Semes are the smallest units of which a meaning of a word consists, the component parts of the meaning. 1) Grammatical meaning is structural. It refers our mind to relations between words or to some/forms of words or constructions 2) Lexical meaning refers the mind to some concrete concept, phenomenon or thing of objective reality whether real or imaginary.

Words are classified according to different principles: There are 3 types of meanings: 1. Logical meaning is referential or direct meaning. It's the precise name of the object, feature, phenomenon (It can be primary and secondary) (Ex. nail) 2. Emotive meaning also materializes a concept but unlike logical meaning emotive meaning has reference not directly to things, phenomena or objects but to emotions and feelings. 3. Nominal meaning. There are words which while expressing concepts indicate a particular object out

of a class. They are classified in grammar as proper names. In this way nominal meaning is a derivative (вторичный) logical meaning. It must be remembered that the nominal meaning will be always secondary to the logical meaning. words can be classed according to different principls - morphological,  words are grouped according to their gram meaning), semantic (synonyms, antonyms, words are grouped according to their logical or referential meanings), stylistic principle (words are grouped according to their stylistic meanings.

4.2 Syntactical expressive means and stylistic devices (Supra-phrasal units, Paragraph) 1.Supra-phrasal units 2.The paragraph (they deal with the composition of utterance larger than the sentence) 3.Stylistic inversion 4.Detached construction (they deal with compositional patterns of syntactical arrangement)

Within the language as a system, there establish themselves definite types of relations between words, word combinations, sentences and also between larger spends of utterances. The brunch of language science that studies the type of relations between the units enumerated is called syntax.

Supra-phrasal units (SPUs) It generally comprises (вкл) a number of sentences independent by means of pronouns, connectives, tense forms and semantically (one definite thought is dealt with).. So a supra-phrasal unit may be defined as a combination of sentences presenting a structural and semantic unity and backed up (усил) by rhythm and melodic unity. Such a span of utterance is also characterized by the fact that it can be extracted from the context without losing its relative semantic independence. The principles to single out the supra-phrasal unit: l. Coherence 2. Interdependence of the elements 3. One definite idea 4.The purport of the writer (to make the desired impact on the reader)

The paragraph is a graphical term used to name a group of sentences marked off by the indentation (отступ) at the beginning and a break in the line at the end. It's also marked off by purely linguistic means: intonation, pauses, semantic ties. the more difficult is to follow the purpose of the writer. In newspaper style however, most paragraphs consist of 2-3 sentences. Paragraphs are classified from the point of view of the logical sequence of the sentence. Models of paragraphs: l. From the general to the part or vice versa 2.From cause to effect and vice versa 3.Based on contrast or comparison. A paragraph generally has a topic sentence which embodies the main idea. It may be placed at the beginning, end, in the belles-lettres style it may be placed anywhere.

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3.1 Varieties of language. The functioning of the literary language in various spheres of human activity and with different aims of communication has resulted in its differentiation by 2 factors that is the actual situation in which the language is being used and the aim of communication. The actual situation of the communication has evolved two varieties of language - the spoken and the written. there is aim of communications have caused the lit language to fall into a number of self sufficient systems (functional styles of language).  the written: secondary, there's no interlocutor present, more explanatory, more informative, monologue, language with its careful organization, as it can be detached from the writer, enabling him to look upon, his utterance objectively and giving opportunity to correct it. the spoken: primary

it's supported with the help of voice, gestures, emotions, volume, intonation, pausation, presence of an interlocutor of audienc, we can omit some words (ellipsis), more emotional, it is maintained in the form of a dialogue. Of the 2 varieties diachronically the spoken is primary and the written is secondary. The gap between the spoken and written varieties of language has phonetical, morphological, syntactical differences. F.e. he'd abbreviated he would. the use of colloquial and literary, bookish words, the use of intensifies (i'm terrubly sorry), the use of empty words (mmm, mummbling). The   written   language   prefers   long   utterance   to   short   utterance   and   vice   versa.   Coherence (послед-ть) and logical thinking - belong to the written language.

The most striking difference is in the vocabulary used. There are words typically colloquial and typically bookish. Syntactical peculiarities: elliptical constructions. Emition some part if the utterance. (been a good girl toay?). Tautological subject. The use of linking words (however. moreother). Another difference lies in the use of complicated sentences. The written language tends to be longer - hypo taxis (longuttrences), in colloquial we deal with parataxis - short uttrences.

3.2 Peculiar use of set expressions (quotation, allusion). Quotation - is a repetition of a phrase or statement from a book, speech and the like used by way of authority, illustration, proof, or as a basis for further speculation on the matter. A quotation is the exact reproduction of an actual utterance made by a certain author. Quotations unlike epigrams need not necessarily be short. A whole paragraph or a long passage may be quoted if it suits the purpose. What is quoted must be worth quoting. If repeated frequently it may be recognized as an epigram it has at least some of the linguistic properties of the later. Quotation are marked off in the text by inverted comas, dashes, or other graphical means.  They are mostly used accompanied by a reference to the author of the quotation. Unless he is well-known to the reader or the audience. The reference is made either in the text or in the footnote f.e. as .. one’s said that. Utterances than quoted undergo a peculiar change their merge with other sentences in the text in the most natural and organic way. Quotations are used mostly in the belles-lettres style as a stylistic device. In other styles they allow no modification of meaning.

Allusions - is an indirect reference by a word or a phrase to a historical, literary, mythological, biblical fact or to the fact of everyday life made in the course of speaking or writing. The use of allusion presupposes knowledge of the fact, thing or person, alluded to on the part of the reader or listener.

Differences between allusion and quotation: 1) in allusion no indication of the source is given. A quotation must repeat the exact origin thou the meaning may be modified. An allusion is only a mention of a word or phrase which may be regarded as a key word of an utterance. 2) quotation repeats the exact wording of the original when an allusion is only a mention of a word or phrase which may be regarded as the key-word of the utterance. 3)  Allusions are based on the accumulated experience and the knowledge of the writer who presupposes a similar experience and knowledge of the reader. . F.e. of the headline – ‘pie in the sky’ for rail man. This is an allusion from the refrain of worker’s song. You’ll get a pie in the sky when you die. The allusion serves as a vessel into which a new meaning is poured. An allusion made to the coachman old Mr. Weller. The father of Dickens’s character Sam Weller. In this case the nominal meaning is broaden into generalize concept. Thackeray – there is the old now and it’s merry incidents of life. Old honest people knotweeds coachmen. I wonder there they are. Those good fellows.  Is old Weller a life or dead?

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5.1 Stylistic classification of the English vocabulary (general consideration)

In accordance with the division of language into literary and colloquial the word-stock of the English language is divided into 3 main layers: literary vocabulary, colloquial vocabulary and neutral words

Colloquial Neutral Literary

Kid Child Infant

Daddy Father Parent

Chap Fellow Associate

Get out  Go away Retire

Teenager Boy / girl Youth

Go ahead / get along Start / begin commence

To the lit level belong terms and learned words, poetic words, archaic words, barbarism and foreign words. literary coiners including - special lit vocabulary, common lit vocabulary. the neutral - the standard english voc.  the coloquial level - slang words, jargonisms, professional words, dialectal words, vulgar words, and colloquial coinagures. - special colloquial voc. which is non-standard, non-literary. common coloquial voc. slang, jargon, professional words, dialects. vulgar words, coloquial coinagure.

Neutral words form the bulk English voc and are used in both lit and coloq langv. neutral words are the main source of synonymy and policemy.  they play a gait role in developing new meanings and generating new stylistic variants. they don't have any stylisctic colouring. common literary words are chiefly used in writing and unpolished speech. Both lit and col words have their upper and lower rangers. the lower range of lit words is common lit. had a tendency to pass into the neutral leyer. the lines of demarcation between common colloquial and neutral on the one hand and common lit and the neutral on the other hand are blind (неясный, нечеткий). the process of interpenetration of the stylistic strata  becomes most apparent.

5.2 Syntactical expressive means and stylistic devices (inversion, detached construction)

1.Supra-phrasal units 2.The paragraph (they deal with the composition of utterance larger than the sentence) 3.Stylistic inversion 4.Detached construction (they deal with compositional patterns of syntactical arrangement)

Stylistic Inversion - word order is a crucial syntactical problem in many languages. Stylistic inversion aims at attaching logical stress or additional emotional colouring to the surface of the utterance. Therefore a specific intonation pattern is typical of inversion. The violation of the traditional word order of the sentence (subject-predicate-object-adverbial modifiers) which does not alter the meaning of the sentence only giving it an additional emotional coloring is called stylistic inversion. Stylistic inversion is used to single out some parts of the sentence and sometimes to heighten the emotional tension. Therefore a specific intonation pattern is the inevitable satellite of inversion.

The patterns of stylistic inversion: l. Traditional Inversion: object + subject + predicate e.g. Talent he has, capital he has not. 2.Post-position of the attribute (after the word it modifies). This model is often used when there is more than one attribute,  e.g. Once upon a midnight dreary... 3.Predicate (гл. чл предл) + subject e.g. A good generous prayer it was. 4. The adverbial modifier comes at the beginning of the sentence e.g. Eagerly I wished the morrow. 5.Both modifier and predicate stand before the subject e.g. In went Mr.Pickwick

Detached construction The detached part being torn from its referent assumes a greater degree of significance and is given prominence by intonation. It always ranks secondary from the semantic point of view although structurally it possesses all the features of a primary member.

Detached construction is akin to inversion but it produces a much stronger effect. e.g. Steine rose up, grinding his teeth, pale, and with fury in his eyes. "I want to go," he said, miserable. The structural patterns of detached constructions have not yet been classified, but the most noticeable cases are those in which an attribute or an adverbial modifier is placed not in immediate proximity to its referent, but in some other position.

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6.1 Neutral and Common Literary Vocabulary

l. Neutral words which form the bulk of the English vocabulary are used in both literary and colloquial languages. 2.Neutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy. 3. Neutral words do not have a special stylistic colouring whereas both literary and colloquial words have. Common literary words are chiefly used in writing and unpolished speech. One can always tell a literary word from a colloquial word. The vocabulary of the literary colloquial style comprises neutral, bookish and literary words. The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character. That means it is unrestricted in its use. It can be employed in all styles and in all spheres of human activity. Neutral words, which form the bulk of the English vocabulary, are used in both literary and colloquial language. The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped under the term standard English vocabulary. Other groups in the literary layer are regarded as special literary vocabulary and those in the colloquial layer are regarded as special colloquial (non-literary) vocabulary.

6.2 Syntactical expressive means and stylistic devices (parallel construction, chiasmus, repetition)

Parallel Construction - The necessary conditions in parallel construction is identical or similar syntactical structures in 2 or more sentences or parts of a sentence in close succession. e.g. There were real silver spoons to stir the tea with and real china cups to drink it out of, and plates of the same to hold the cakes and toast in.

Parallel constructions are often backed up by repetition of words and conjunctions and prepositions. It is

called Polysyndeton. It may be partial (repetition of some parts of successive sentences) or complete (balance) e.g. the seeds you sow - another reaps. Parallel constructions are characterised by rhythm and often used in poetry. is a device which may be encountered not so much in the sentence as in the macro - structures dealt with the syntactical whole and the paragraph. The necessary condition in parallel construction is identical or similar, syntactical structure in two or more sentences or parts of sentence. Constructions formed by the same syntactical pattern, closely following one another present the stylistic device of parallelism. Parallelism strongly affects the rhythmical organization of the paragraph, so it is imminent in oratoric speech, in pathetic and emphatic extracts. The necessary condition in parallel constructions is identical or similar, syntactical structure in two or more sentences or parts of sentence in close succession.

Chiasmus. It is a reversed parallel construction. It is based on the repetition of a syntactical pattern, but it has a cross order of words and phrases. It brings in some new shade of meaning or additional emphasis.

e.g. Down dropped the breeze, The sails dropped down. She was a good sport about all this, but so was he. In chiasmus the central part of the sentence – the predicate (сказуемое) remains the hinge (петля) around which occur syntactical changes – the subject of the first sentence becomes the object of the second and vice versa. The coach was waiting, the horse were fresh, the roads were good, and the driver was willing.

Repetition - is an expressive means of language used when the speaker is under stress of a strong emotion. It shows the state of mind of the speaker. as a stylistic device is a direct successor of repetition as an expressive language means, which serves to emphasize certain statements of the speaker, and so possesses considerable emotive force. Repetition is classified according, to compositional patterns:

l. Anaphora - the repeated word or phrase which comes at the beginning of two or more sentences. 2. Epiphora - repeated word is placed at the end of the sentences. 3.Framing - repetition is arranged in the form of a frame. 4.Linking repetition - when the last word or phrase of one part of an utterance is repeated at the

beginning of the next part, thus linking the 2 parts together. e.g. A smile would come into Mr. Pickwick's face the smile extended into a laugh, the laugh into the roar and the roar became general. 5.Chain repetition. The whole phrase is repeated, forming a chain, (function of repetition is to intensify the utterance) 6. anadiplosis or catch repetition – the repetition of the same unit (word or phrase) at the end of the preceding and at the beginning of the sentence (…a, a …); The combination of several catch repetitions produces a chain repetition. Repetition emphasizes the most important part of the utterance, rendering the emotions of the speaker or showing his emotive attitude towards the object described. Types of lexical repetitions: 1)pleonasm - the use of more words in the sentence then necessary to express the meaning, 2)tautology - the repetition of the same word/phrase or the same idea or statement in other words often in different grammatical forms.

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8.1 Special Literary Vocabulary Terms, Poetic and highly literary words. Archaic, obsolescent and obsolete words)

Term is generally very easily coined (замышлять). And new coinages easily replace outdated ones. A term is directly connected with the concept it denotes. Terms are mostly used in special works dealing with the notions of some branch of science. They also may appear in newspaper style, in publicistic style. A term unlike other words directs the mind to the essential quality of the thing, phenomenon or action as seen by the scientist in the light of his own conceptualization. Terms are mostly used in special works dealing with some brunch of science. They belong to scientific style or academic prose. However they may appear in other styles (publicistic, newspaper, bilater(it may acquire a stylistic function and  become stylistic device). The function of terms used in other styles changes. It is either to indicate the technical peculiarities of the subject dealt with or to make some reference to the occupation or a character couse language would naturally contain special words and expressions.

With increase of general education, and the expansion of technologies to satisfy the growing needs and desires of a mankind. Many terms have gradually lost their quality as terms and have passed in literary that is called determinization .computer, mobile phon, radio.

Poetic and highly literary words. They form a rather insignificant layer of the special literary voc.1.They are used by authors to produce an elevated (возвыш) effect.2.They have a tendency to detach themselves from the common literary word-stock and assume the quality of terms denoting certain notions and calling forth poetic diction.

Poetical words in an ordinary environment may also have a satirical function. They can also be found in other styles, e.g. in journalistic style: proceed (go), the welkin (the sky), the vale (the valley), the devouring element (the fire). Archaic words - yclept (to call, name), quoth (to speak), eftsoons (again soon after). These words are often used by modern ballet mangers (сочинители баллад). Some poetical words and set expressions make the utterance understandable only to a limited number of readers. This poetical language is often called poetical jargon. Poetic words they are mostly archaic or rarely used highly lit words. And gradually assume the quality of terms denoting certain definite notions and calling force poetic diction. They evoke emotive meaning. They color the utterance with the certain air of loftiness (elevation). But generally fail to produce a general feeling of delight. They are took hacked (банальные), too outdate. Poetical words are set expressions that make the utterance understandable only to a limited number of readers. That's why poetical slang sometimes called poetical jargon.

Obsolescent These words are in the stage of gradually passing out of general use. e.g.: 1. the pronouns: thee, thou, thy, thine 2. verbal ending -est: thoumakest3. the ending -e(th): he maketh The french borrowings - garniture (gerniture) or pellet.

Obsolete These words have already gone out of use but are still recognized by the English-speaking community: nay (no), me things (it seems to me)

Archaic proper They are no longer recognizable in modern English. Words that were in use in old

English and which have either dropped out of the language or have changed their appearance, have become unrecognizable: troth (face), a lose (a worthless lazy fellow). Archaic words are primarily used in the creation of a realistic background in historical novels. Also in official documents: aforesaid, hereby, therewith, hereinafter. In poetry they are used to create an elevated effect. Some   archaic   words   due   to   their   inner   qualities   may   be   revived   at   given   period   of  the development of the English language, thus restablishing themselves. albeit = although

8.2 Syntactical expressive means and stylistic devices (antithesis) is used to characterize a think or phenomenon from a specific point of view but not to find points of resemblance or association but to find points of sharp contrast that is to said one object against the other. In order to characterize a thing or phenomenon from a specific point of view it may be necessary not to find points of resemblance or association between it and some other thing or phenomenon but to find sharp contrast, that is to set the thing or phenomenon against the other. 1) the exact opposite 2) contrast or opposition 3) rhetoric the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, phrases, or words so as to produce an effect of balance, e.g. my words fly up, my thoughts remain below. Antithesis and logical opposition shouldn’t be confused. F.e. logical – a saint abroad and a devil at home. Better to rain in hell than serve in heaven. Antithesis or stylistic opposition is of a different linguistic nature. It is based on relative opposition which arises out of the context through the expansion of objectively contrasting pairs. F.e. Youth is lovely, age is lonely, youth is fairy, age is frosty. The function of antithesis – rhythm forming, connecting, disconnecting and comparative.

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10.1 Special colloquial voc. (slang, jarsonisms, professionalisms)

Slang a) special vocabulary used by any set of persons of a low character, language of a low and vulgar type.

b)  the cant (арго) or jargon of a certain class or period c) language of a highly colloquial type considered as below the level of standard educated speech and consisting either of new words or of current words employed in some special sense. Slang is nothing but a deviation from the established norm of the language. Slang words are either mispronounced or distorted in some way: phonetically, morphologically.

Jargonisms - The non-literary words of the English language. They are generally old words with entirely new meanings imposed on them and this improvised meaning is most important. Quid=pound; bob=shilling

But it's difficult to draw a fast line between slang and jargon. Slang needs no translation. Jargon does. When a jargonism becomes common it passes on to a higher step and becomes slang. Joker - шутник; drag - to rob vehicles; to soap-box - to make speeches out of doors. Jargonisms like slang and other groups of non-literary layer may enter the standard vocabulary.

Professionalisms are words used in a definite trade, profession or calling by people connected by common interests both at work and at home. They are correlated (взаимосвяз) to terms. Terms are easily decoded and enter the neutral stratum of the vocabulary. Professionalisms generally remain in circulation within a definite community as they are linked to a common occupation and common social interest. Like terms professionalisms don't allow any polysemy. They are monosemantic (однознач). tin-fish = submarine. Professionalisms like terms are used in emotive prose for speech characterization.

10.2 Particular ways of combining parts of the utterance (polysyndeton) is a stylistic device of connecting sentences or phrases, or syntagmas, or words by using connectives, mostly conjunctions and prepositions before each component part e.g. F.e. the heaviest rain, and snow, and sleet, could boast of the advantage over him in only one respect. Functions: rhythmical, disintegrating. Differences between enumeration and polysyndeton. Enumeration integrates both homogeneous and heterogeneous elements into one whole. It shows things united. Polysyndeton causes each member to stand out conspicuously (заметно). It shows them isolated.

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11.1 Special colloquial voc. (dialectal words, vulgarisms, colloquial coinages including nonce-words) Dialectal Words - Are those which in the process of integration of the English national language remained beyond its literary boundaries (граница). Some dialectal words have become so familiar that they are accepted as units of standard colloquial English, lass/lad;

Of quite different nature are dialectal words which are corruptions of standard English hinny = honey; titty = sister (childish corruption): Scottish: maister - mister, eneugh = enough, naething = nothing. But they are easily understood by an average Englishman.

Vulgar Words. Vulgarisms are subdivided: 1. Expletives - swear words, which are of an abusive character. They're often used as general exclamations. 2. Obscene (непристойный) words. These are known as four-letter (матерн) words. The use of them is banned in any form of intercourse as being indecent. Vulgarisms are often used in conversation out of habit without any thought of what they mean. They will never acquire the status of standard English vocabulary.

Colloquial coinages including nonce-words. They unlike those of a literary bookish character are:

1.Spontaneous and allusive 2.Not all of them are fixed in dictionaries or even in writing and therefore most of them disappear from the language leaving no trace in it. 3. Unlike literary bookish coinages nonce-words of a colloquial nature are not usually built by means of affixes but are based on certain semantic changes in words and it's only a careful stylistic analysis of the utterance as a whole that will reveal a new shade of meaning inserted into the semantic structure of the word. colloquial coinages.   The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped under the term standard English vocabulary. Other groups in the literary layer are regarded as special literary vocabulary and those in the colloquial layer are regarded as special colloquial (non-literary) vocabulary.

Nonce-word is another type of neologism. That is a word coined to suit one particular occasion.They rarely pass into the language as legitimate units of the vocabulary but they remain in the language as constant manifestations of the power of word-building means.

11.2 Particular ways of combining parts of the utterance (gap-sentence link) (наруш семантич связи)

is a peculiar type of connection of sentences which is not immediately apparent and requires a certain effort to grasp the interrelation between the parts of the utterance to bridge this semantic gap.The gap-sentense link has no immediate semantic connection, therefore it requires indications of connections: conjunctions, and, but. The conjunctions acquire expressive shades of meaning. These shades cause the peculiar intonation with which they are pronounced. The intonation may be put by the dash. F.e. She and that fellow ought to be sufferers, and they were in Italy. Last part seems to be logically incoherent. After a more careful, ultra lineal analysis, it becomes clear that an exact logical variant of the utterance would be. Those who ought to suffer were enjoying themselves in Italy.

Gap-sentence link is typical of the spoken language and is therefore most frequently used in represented speech. It aims at stirring up in the reader's mind suppositions, associations and conditions under which the sentence can really exist.

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13.1 Lexical expressive means and stylistic devices. The expressive means of a language are: it's phonetic, morphological, word-building, lexical, phraseological and syntactical forms, which exist in language as a system for the purpose of logical or/and emotional intensification of the utterance.

Phonetic means are the most powerful ones: intonation, pause, pitch (TOH), melody, stress, drawing out certain syllables, whispering, a sing-song manner etc.Morphological expressive means provide a kind of emphasis. (words&morphemes) The word-building expressive means: the diminutive suffixes, nonce words, formed with non-productive suffixes. Lexical means: interjections, slang words, archaic, obsolete (poetic words), phraseological units, proverbs, sayings, catch-words. They make speech more emphatic).

At the syntactic level there are many constructions which also reveal a certain degree of logical or emotional emphasis. A stylistic device is the use of any of a variety of techniques to give an auxiliary meaning, idea, or

feeling to the literal or written. Repetition is the deliberate use of a word or phrase more than a once in a sentence to emphasize certain elements in the mind of the reader or listener. Rhyme - The repetition of identical or similar sounds, usually at the end of words. Most stylistic devices display an application

of 2 meanings: The ordinary meaning is referential. The special meaning is contextual. The contextual meaning takes precedence over the referential meaning.

Stylistic Devices: Alliteration Allusion Anaphora Antithesis Hyperbole Litotes Metaphor Metonymy Onomatopoeia Repetition Rhetorical Question Simile Synecdoche

The implied meaning is derived not directly from the words but from a much subtler analysis which is called supralinear or suprasegmental analysis. "Let us have wine and women, mirth and laughter, servance and soda-water - the day after. " servance. soda-water - absolutely unrelated. 'Will you oblige me by keeping your trap shut, darling." - he retorted. Such lexical SD as metonymy and irony belong to the first group of LSD based on the interaction of lexical meanings.          Metonymy (Gk. metonymia 'changing of name') is a trope in which the name of a thing is replaced by the name of an associated thing. One name is used instead of another. Unlike metaphor where the interaction b/w the meanings of different words is based on resemblance, metonymy reflects the actually existing relations. The following types of metonymy ore differentiated:                                                             1)    the abstract stands for the concrete : It was a representative gathering— science, politics, business. 2)    the container is mentioned instead of the contents : He drank one more cup (of coffee). 3) the material instead of the thing made of it: He examined her bronzes and clays. 4) the maker for the thing made : He had several Picassos (paintings by P. Picasso.). He bought a Ford.  5)   the instrument it put for the agent. His pen is rather sharp. The saxophone has the flu today. 6)  a part is put for the whole (synecdoche): the crown(= king); a hand(= worker)                                                                                                                  Metonymy reflects the actually existing relations between two objects. Since the types of such relations are limited, they are observed again and again, and metonymy in many cases is trite .A chain of expressive synonymic words always contains at least one neutral synonym. A chain of expressive synonyms used in a single utterance creates the effect of climax (gradation). It should be remembered that imagery can be created by lexical SD's only. All other stylistic devices (such as phonetic, graphic, morphological and syntactical SD's) do introduce imagery, but can serve as intensifiers; any of them can add logical, emotive, expressive info to the utterance.

13.2 Particular use of colloquial constructions (question-in-the-narrative, represented speech) Question-in-the-narrative changes the real nature of a question and turns it into a SD. A question in the narrative is asked and answered by one and the same person, usually the author. is very often used in oratory. This is explained by one of the leading features of oratorical style - to induce the desired reaction to the content of the speech. Questions here change the attention of the listeners to the matter the orator is dealing with and prevent it from wandering. They also give the listeners time lo absorb what has been said, and prepare for the next point. It may also remained unanswered.

Represented speech. There are three ways of reproducing actual speech: 1. repetition of the exact utterance as it was spoken (direct speech). Actually, direct speech is a quotation. It is sometimes used in the publicistic style of language as a quotation. 2. conversion of the exact utterance into the relates mode of expression (indirect speech). 3. representation of the actual utterance by a second person, usually the author, as if it had been spoken, whereas it has not really been spoken but is only represented in the author's words (represented speech) Varieties of represented speech: 1.uttered represented speech - representation of the actual utterance through the author's Language. Uttered represented speech is the representation of author’s utterance through of author’s speech. 2.unuttered or inner represented speech - representation of the thoughts and feelings of the character. It is usually

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12.1 Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices. The stylistic approach to the utterance is not confined to its structure and its sense. There's another thing to be taken into account - the way a word, a phrase or a sentence sounds.

Onomatopoeia. It is a combination of speech sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder etc.); by things (machine-tools); by people (sighing, laughter, patter of feet etc.); by animals (barking, purring etc.). Combinations of speech sounds of this type will inevitably be associated with whatever produces this sounds. Direct onomatopoeia is contained in words that imitate natural sounds: ding-dong, buzz, bang, mew, ping-pong, roar. They have different degrees of imitative quality. Some of them immediately bring to mind whatever it is. Some require special imagination. Indirect onomatopoeia is a combination of sounds the aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense. And the silken, sad, uncertain, rustling of each purple curtain. “and the silken said uncertain rustling of each purple curtain” Edgar Po. The repetition of s actually produce the sound of the rustling of the curtain. Indirect o. is sometimes used by repeating words which are not onomatopoeic. “silver bells how they tinkle-tinkle-tinkle” Po.

Alliteration is a phonetic stylistic device which aims at imparting (придавать) a melodic effect to the utterance. The essence of this device lies in the repetition of similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds, in close succession, particularly at the beginning of successive words. e.g. Doubting, dreaming dreams, no mortals ever dared to dream before (Byron). The repetition of the initial sounds in the line integrates the utterance into a compositional unit (единое целое). It's frequently used not only in verse, but in emotive prose, headlines, in the titles of books, in proverbs and sayings: blind as a bat, tit for tat (зуб за зуб), between and betwixt, "Sense and Sensibility" (J.Austene), "Pride and Prejudice". Alliteration is deeply rooted in the traditions of English folklore.

Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combinations of words. Rhyming words are

generally placed at a regular distance from each other. In verse they are usually placed at the end of the

corresponding lines. a) Full rhymes. The identity of the vowel sound and following consonant sounds in a stressed syllable: knight-right. b) Incomplete rhymes. vowel rhymes mean that the vowels of the syllables in the corresponding verbs are identical. The consonants may be different: flesh –fresh-press. consonant rhymes mean that the consonants are identical and the vowels are different: tail - tool

Modifications of rhyming: 1.Compound (broken). When one word rhymes with a combination of words, or two or three words rhyme with corresponding two or three words. Upon her owner…won her 2. Eye-rhyme. When the letters but not the sounds are identical: love-prove, flood-brood, have-grave. According to the way the rhymes are arranged within the stanza (строфа) certain models have been distinguished: l. Couplets: when the last words of two successive lines are rhymed (aa). 2. Triple rhymes: the last words of three successive lines are rhymed (aaa).

3.Cross rhymes (abab) 4.Framing (ring) rhymes (abba) 5.Internal rhyme: the rhyming words are placed not at the ends of the lines but within the line: bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers (Shelley)

Functions of rhyme: l) Dissevering (disconnecting) 2) Consolidating

Rhythm. It's periodicity. Rhythmical periodicity in verse requires intervals of about 3 quarters of a

second between successive peaks of periods. The concept of rhythm should be distinguished from that of

meter. Meter is determined by the character and number of syllables it consists of. It's characterized by

strict regularity, consistency and unchangeability. Deviations from the given meter are called

modifications of the rhythmical pattern. Rhythm in verse as a stylistic device is a combination of the

ideal metrical scheme and the variations which are governed by the standard. Functions: rhythm intensifies

emotions. (in poetry) a) the arrangement of words into a more or less regular sequence of stressed and unstressed or long and short syllables b) any specific such arrangement; metre

12.2 Particular use of colloquial constructions (ellipsis, break-in-the-narrative)

Elipsis is the omission of parts of the utterance easily supplied by the situation, in which the communication takes place. Ellipsis is a typical phenomenon in conversation and is simply a norm of the spoken language. But when used in the written language it becomes a stylistic device. When used as a stylistic device, ellipsis always imitates the common features of colloquial language, where the situation predetermines not the omission of certain members of the sentence, but their absence. So sentences like "See you tomorrow" and "Won't do" are typical of the colloquial language but they are not elliptical. The most characteristic feature of the written variety of language is amplification (расшир), which by its very nature is opposite to ellipsis. Amplification generally demands expansion of the ideas with as full and as exact relations between the parts of the utterance as possible. Ellipsis, on the contrary, being the property of colloquial language does not express what can easily be supplied by the situation. This is perhaps the reason why eliptical sentences are rarely used as stylistic devices. Sometimes the omission of a link verb adds emotional coloring and makes the utterance sound more emphatic. F.e. Trice happy here, after survey of the good company can win a corner. Nothing so difficult as a beginning.

Break-in-the-Narrative is a device defined as "a stopping short for rhetorical (напыщ, риторич) effect". In the spoken variety of the language, a break in the narrative is usually caused by unwillingness to proceed; or by the supposition that what remains to be said can be understood by the implication embodied (воплощ) in what has been said. In the written variety, a break in the-narrative is always a stylistic device used for some stylistic effect. The only criterion is that in conversation the implication can be conveyed by an adequate gesture. In writing it is the context, which suggests the adequate intonation, that is the only key to decoding the break-in-the-narrative. Break-in-the-narrative is a SD when conveys to the reader very strong emotions.

Break-in-the-narrative is a SD in which the role of the intonation implied can't be overestimated. The pause after the break is generally charged (наполн) with meaning and it is the intonation only that will decode the communicative significance of the utterance. f.e. you just come home or I’ll… It is a device which on the one hand offers a number of variants in deciphering an implication and on the other hand is a highly predictable stylistic device. A sudden break in the narrative will inevitable focus the attention in what is lead unsaid. F.e. good intentions but… in requires adequate intonation.

introduces by verbs of mental perception (think, wonder, feel, opaque)

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14.1 Interaction of primary dictionary and contextually imposed meaning (metaphor) Here we have 3 lines of imposing a meaning on the word by the context. l. When the author identifies 2 objects which have nothing in common but in which he subjectively sees a function, a property, a feature that make the reader perceive 2 objects as identical. This is a metaphor. 2. When the author finds it possible to substitute 1 object for another on the grounds that there's some kind of interdependence or interrelation between the 2 corresponding objects. This is a metonymy. 3. When a certain property or quality of an object is used in an opposite or contradictory sense. It is irony.

Metaphors are classified according to their degree of unexpectedness. They may be: l. absolutely unexpected - genuine metaphors (they belong to the language in action). Genuine metaphors are found in poetry 2.trite metaphors (or dead metaphors) - they are predictable and they belong to language as a system. They are fixed in dictionaries as units of language. They are used as expressive means in newspapers, oratories, scientific language. e.g a ray of hope, floods of tears. They help the writer to revive his work and make the meaning more concrete. 3.sustained or prolonged metaphors - When the context refreshes the almost dead metaphor and gives it a second life. e.g Mr. Pickwick bottled up his vengeance (месть) and corked it down. bottle up - to conceal, to repress, "cork down" refreshed this almost dead metaphor. There is a constant interaction between the genuine and tripped metaphors. Genuine metaphors can stand the contest of time and become tripped and predictable. Tripped metaphor may regain their freshness through the process of prolongation of the metaphor. Metaphor is based on transference of some quality from one object to another. “Dear nature is the kindest mother still” Mother and nature brought together bring up the image of nature materialized but not likened to the image of mother.

The results of the interaction of the dictionary and contextual meaning. The constant use of a metaphor gradually leads to the breaking up of the primary meaning. It begins to affect the dictionary meaning adding to it fresh connotations but the dictionary meaning will never entirely disappear. The law of stylistics: in a stylistic device the stability of the dictionary meaning is always retained no matter how great the influence of the contextual meaning may be.

14.2 Stylistic use of structural meanins (rhetorical question, litotes)

Rhetorical question is a special syntactical stylistic device, the essence of which consists in reshaping the grammatical meaning of the interrogative sentence. In other words, the question is no longer a question but a statement expressed in the form of the interrogative sentence. Rhetorical questions are structurally embodied (воплощ) in complex sentences with the subordinate clause containing the pronouncement. e.g. Is the poor privilege to turn the key upon the captive, freedom? One can detect irony instead of a categorical pronouncement. The intonation is also different from ordinary questions. Rhetorical questions may also express different kinds of mood at shades of meaning, such as doubt, challenge scorn, Irony, and so on.

Rhetorical question reinforces the essential quality of interrogative sentences and uses it. Rhetorical questions are used in publicistic style and particularly in oratory.

Litotes is a stylistic device consisting of a peculiar use of negative constructions. Negation + noun or adjective serves to establish a positive feature in a person or a thing. This positive feature however is somewhat diminished in quality as compared with a synonymous expression which is positive. e.g.It's not a bad thing, it's a good thing. He's no coward, he's a brave man. These pair aren't equal. In both cases the negative construction is weaker than the affirmative one, but it has a stronger impact on the reader.

Litotes is a deliberate understatement used to produce a stylistic effect which mainly depends on intonation.

A variant of litotes a construction with 2 negations. e.g. Not unlike or not unpromising. it’s not unlike him. I’m not at all displeased. According to general logical and mathematical principles two negative make a positive. Litotes is used in different styles of speech excluding those which may be called the matter-of-fact styles like official style and scientific prose. The stylistic effect of litotes is also depend on intonation.

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15.1 Interaction of primary dictionary and contextually imposed meaning (metonymy, irony). Here we have 3 lines of imposing a meaning on the word by the context. 1 .When the author identifies 2 objects which have nothing in common but in which he subjectively sees a function, a property, a feature that make the reader perceive 2 objects as identical. This is a metaphor. 2. When the author finds it possible to substitute 1 object for another on the grounds that there's some kind of interdependence or interrelation between the 2 corresponding objects. This is a metonymy. 3. When a certain property or quality of an object is used in an opposite or contradictory sense. It is irony.

Metonymy. When the author finds it possible to substitute one object for another on the grounds that there is some kind of interdependence or interrelation between the two corresponding objects we speak about metonymy. crown - may also stand for "king" or "queen", cup or glass - the drink it contains, woolsack - the chancellor of the Exchequer. Metonymy (Gk. metonymia 'changing of name') is a trope in which the name of a thing is replaced by the name of an associated thing. One name is used instead of another. Unlike metaphor where the interaction b/w the meanings of different words is based on resemblance, metonymy reflects the actually existing relations. The following types of metonymy are differentiated:                                                             1)    the abstract stands for the concrete : It was a representative gathering— science, politics, business. 2)    the container is mentioned instead of the contents : He drank one more cup (of coffee). 3) the material instead of the thing made of it: He examined her bronzes and clays. 4) the maker for the thing made : He had several Picassos (paintings by P. Picasso.). He bought a Ford.  5)   the instrument it put for the agent. His pen is rather sharp. The saxophone has the flu today. 6)  a part is put for the whole (synecdoche): the crown(=king); a hand(= worker)  Metonymy reflects the actually existing relations between two objects. Since the types of such relations are limited, they are observed again and again, and metonymy in many cases is trite, as to earn one's bread; to ton by the pen; to keep one's mouth shut; to read Shakespeare                                                     

Irony - When a certain property or quality of an object is used in an opposite or contradictory sense, we speak about irony. It's based on opposite concepts. e.g. It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in ones pocket. Irony must not be confused with humour because the function of irony is not confined to producing a humorous effect but rather to expressing a feeling of irritation, displeasure, pity, regret.The effect of irony lies in the striking disparity (несоответствие) between what is said and what is meant. Irony is generally used to convey a negative meaning. Emphasis is placed on the opposition between the dictionary and the intended meaning of a statement: one thing is said and the opposite is implied. Nice weather isn't it. (On a rainy day). but only positive concepts may be used in it (as above: great, nice). Her distaste is impeccable.

15.2 Functional styles of the English language. is a patterned variety of literary text characterised by the greater or lesser typification of its constituents (supraphrasal units) in which the choice and arrangement of interdependent, and interwoven language media are calculated to secure the purport of the communication. Functional style is a historic category. It changes from one period to another. The development of each style is preretirement by the changes in the norms of standard English, social conditions, the progress of science and the development of cultural life in the country. Extra linguistic causes.

The belles-lettres style It is subdivided into: 1. the language of poetry; 2 motive prose; 3 the language of the drama. Publicists style it falls into 3 varieties: 1. A spoken variety or oratorical substyle; TV and radio commentary (emotional appearance; arguments (brainwashing power persuasion); human voice) 2.The essay: moral, philosophical, literary 3. Journalistic articles: political, social, economic. Newspaper slyle

Information in the English newspaper is conveyed through the media: 1. Brief News Items. Their function is to inform the reader, they state facts without explicit comments. The bulk of vocabulary is neutral and common literary. They are characterised by economic and political terms, cliches and non-term political vocabulary and abbreviations. The headline (a sentence headline, a noun headline) 2. The editorial (inteipretation) 3. Advertisments and Announcements (classified; non-classified). Scientific prose style

The aim is to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations between different phenomena. Features: 1. The logical sequence of utterances 2.The use of specific terms 3. The following sentence patterns: -argumentative; -formulative -postulatory (self evident)4.The use of quotations and references. , the language tends to be objective, precise, unemotional, devoid of any individuality. There is a striving for the most generalized form of expression. The frequent use of foot notes often of a digressive character. It may serve directly to back up the idea. It may also be placed in a footnote in the bottom of page. 6. Impersonality which is revealed in the frequent use of passive constructions. F.e. it must be taken out, it must be emphasized.  The style of official documents 1. The language of business documents and legal documents 3. The language of diplomacy 4. The language of military documents

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16.1 Interaction of primary and derivative logical meanings Zeugma and pun are stylistic devices based on polysemantic effect, on interaction of primary and derivative meaning. Stylistic devices base on polysemantic effect - zeugma and pun. All the derivative (производный) meanings interweaving (переплетение) with the primary one constitute a stylistic device which may be called the polysemantic effect.

Zeugma is the use of the word in the same grammatical but different semantical relations of two adjacent (смежный) words in the context, the semantic relations being on the one hand literal and on the other -transferred. a figure of speech in which a word is used to modify or govern two or more words although appropriate to only one of them or making a different sense with each, as in the sentence Mr. Pickwick took his hat and his leave (Charles Dickens). The boys took their places and their books. - Jane wasn’t a narrow woman in mind and body. She took her breakfast and her bath. Here we feel the blending of 2 or more semantically incompatible word-groups having an identical lexical item make a single construction in which this item is used only once. The resulting effect is strongly humorous/ironical. The same effect is achieved when a word upon which this trope is based is repeated. The pun is based on the interaction of two well-known meanings of a word or a phrase. usually for humorous effect; a play on words. the use of a word in such a manner as to bring out different meanings or applications, or the use of words alike or nearly alike in sound but different in meaning, often with humorous intent. An example is: "Ben Battle was a soldier bold, And used to war's alarms: But a cannonball took off his legs, So he laid down his arms." (Thomas Hood) What is the difference between a schoolmaster engine driver (one trains the mind and the other minds the train). - She was too beautiful for wards. It's difficult to draw a hard and fast distinction between zeugma and pun. The only reliable distinguishing feature is a structural one. zeugma is a structure with a verb, in which one element is central Zeugma is the realization of 2 meanings with the help of verb which is made to refer to different subjects or objects (direct or indirect). The pun is more independent but it must be but it must be penned by a context.by a context.. There is no need for a word in the sentence to which the pun-word refers, but it certainly depends on the context.

The humorous effect is caused by the interplay not of 2 meanings of the word but of 2 words.

Puns are often used in riddles and jokes.

16.2 The belles-lettres style It is subdivided into: 1. the language of poetry 2.emotive prose 3. the language of the drama. They all have common features but at the same time enjoy some individuality. Their common function is cognitive (познавательный). And fulfilling this cognitive function they have much in common with scientific style but the purpose of (he belles-lettres style isn't to prove but only to suggest a positive interpretation of the phenomena of life by forcing the reader to see the viewpoint of the writer.

Individual features. Individuality in selecting language means is extremely apparent in poetic style, gradually less apparent in publicists style and is hardly noticeable in the style of science and is entirely lacking in newspapers and official style. The belles-lettres style has the following linguistic features: 1 Genuine, not imagery, achieved by purely linguistic devices 2.It's also characterised by a vocabulary, which reflects the author's personal evaluation of things. 3.The introduction of the typical features of colloquial language.

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17.1 Interaction of logical and emotive meanings (Interjections and exclamatory words)

Interjections are words we use when we express our feeling strongly and which may be said to exist in language as conventional (общепринятый) symbols of human emotions. Primary interjections are devoid of any logical meaning and derivative interjections may retain a modicum (очень малое кол-во) of logical meaning, although this is always suppressed by the volume of emotive meaning. Feelings, expressed by interjections: regret, astonishment, etc. Interjections can be: bookish, neutral, colloquial - but the borderline between them is very flexible.

Exclamatory words and word-combinations may also function as interjections. Bless me! Come on! God! God gracious! Dear me! Look here! Some adjectives may also function as interjections: Terrible! Splendid! Fine! With proper intonation and with an adequate pause these words may acquire a strong emotional colouring and become equal in force to interjections.

17.2 Publicists style falls into 3 varieties: 1. A spoken variety or oratorical substyle; TV and radio commentary (emotional appearance; arguments (brainwashing power persuasion); human voice). Direct contact with the listeners permits the combination of the syntactical, lexical and phonetic peculiarities of both the written and spoken varieties of language. Certain typical features of the spoken variety of speech present in this style are: direct address to the audience (ladies and gentlemen, honorable member(s), the use of the 2^nd person pronoun you, etc.), sometimes contractions (I’ll, won’t) and the use of colloquial words. Repetition, parallel constructions, antithesis, suspense, climax, rhetorical questions and questions-in-the-narrative.   2.The essay: moral, philosophical, literary. Book reviews and pamphlets are generally included in essays. The essay is a literary composition of moderate length on philosophical, social, aesthetic (эстетич) or literary subjects. Personality in the treatment of theme and naturalness of expression are 2 of the most obvious characteristics of the essay. An essay is rather a series of comments than a conclusive argument. Feature articles are generally published in newspapers, especially weeklies and Sunday editions. In comparison with oratorical style, the essay aims at a more lasting, hence at a slower effect.   3. Journalistic articles: political, social, economic. Irrespective (независ) of the character of the magazine and the divergence of subject matter – whether it is political, literary, popular-scientific or satirical, all the features of publistic style are to be found in any article. The character of the magazine as well as the subject chosen affects the choice and use of stylistic devices.  The general aim of publicistic style is to exert a constant and deep influence on public opinion, to convince the reader or the listener that the interpretation given by the writer or the speaker is the only correct one and to cause him to accept the point of view expressed in the speech, essays or article. Due to its characteristic combination of logical argumentation and emotional appeal, PS has features in common with the style of SP and that of emotive prose.  Publicistic style is characterised by brevity of expression, brevity in essays sometimes becomes epigrammatic.

№18

18.1 Interaction of logical and emotive meanings (epithet, oxymoron)

Epithet is a stylistic device based on the interplay (взаимод) of emotive and logical meanings in an attributive word, phrase or sentence, used to characterize the object and point out to the reader some of the properties and features of the object with the aim of giving an individual perception and evaluation of these features and properties. logical attribute - white show, blue sky, pole complexion. epithets  -wild wind, loud ocean, heart-burning smile. Epithets do not point to inherent (неотъемлемый) qualities of the object, that's why we call them subjectively (субъективно) evaluative (оценочный).

Epithets may be classified from different standpoints: 1) From the semantic point of view they can be associated and unassociated. Associated epithets point to a feature which is essential to objects they describe. It immediately refers the mind to the concept or concepts in question, due to some actual quality of the object it's attached to. e.g. a dark forest, careful attention Unassociated epithets add a feature which is not inherent in the objects, which may be so unexpected as to strike the reader with its novelty. e.g. a heart-burning smile, bootless (безполезный) cries

Epithets can be subdivided into: 1. language epithets and speech epithets. 2) Structurally they can be viewed from the angle of composition and distribution. Composition: simple, phrase (do-it-yourself do-it-alone attitude), compound (cloud-sliapen giant, heart-burning smile), sentence epithets. Distribution; string (ряд) ("Such was the background of the wonderful, cruel, enchanting, bewildering, fatal, great city", "a well-matched, fairly-balanced, give-and-take couple"), transferred - are ordinary logical epithets generally describing the state of a human being but made to refer to an inanimate object (sick chamber, sleepless pillow, merry hours, unbreakfasted morning)

Oxymoron - Oxymoron is a stylistic device where the tenor and the vehicle are diametrically opposite, antonymous. It is a combination of two words, mostly an adjective and a noun, or an adverb with an adjective, in which the meanings of the two clash, being opposite in sense. e.g. low skyscraper, sweet sorrow, nice rascal (жулик), horribly beautiful, pleasantly ugly face. an epigrammatic effect, by which contradictory terms are used in conjunction. Close to oxymoron is paradox, a statement that is contradictory or absurd on the surface: The worse — the better. War is peace. Freedom is slavery. At first sight, oxymoronic collocations seem irrational but on closer examination we find that they disclose the complexity of things and the contradictions of life.Oxymoron is often met within a simile (He was gentle as hell). The words have lost the primary logical meaning and are used only with emotive meaning as intensifiers; they have lost their stylistic value.        

18.2 Newspaper slyle is characterised by a system of interrelated lexical, phraseological and grammatical means which is perceived by the community as a separate linguistic unity that serves the purpose of informing and instructing the reader. Information in the English newspaper is conveyed through the media:. To attract the reader’s attention specific headlines, space ordering, a large proportion of dates, personal names of countries, institutions, and individuals are used. Since the primary function of newspaper style is to impart information, only printed matter serving this purpose comes under newspaper style proper..1. Brief News Items.  Their function is to  inform  the  reader,  they  state  facts  without explicit comments.  They  are  unemotional.  The bulk  of vocabulary  is  neutral  and  common   literary.   They are   characterised   by   economic   and   political   terms,   cliches   and   non-term   political   vocabulary and abbreviations. There are a lot of neologisms, some grammatical peculiarities. It states only facts without giving comments. It has its specific vocabulary features 2. The headline (a sentence headline, a noun headline) The Headline belongs to a specific genre of journalism. It's function is to attract and to Inform. The headline is the title given to a news item of a newspaper article. The main function is to inform the reader briefly of what the news that follows is about. Syntactically headlines are very short sentences or phrases of a variety of patterns: interrogative sentences; nominative sentences; elliptical sentences; sentences with articles omitted; phrases with verbals; complex sentences; 3. The editorial (interpretation) bears the stamp of both the newspaper style and the publistic style. The function is to influence the reader by giving an interpretation of certain facts. Emotional coloring is achieved with the help of various SD (metaphors and epithets), both lexical and syntactical, the use of which is largely traditional. 4. Advertisments and Announcements (classified; non-classified) The function is to inform the reader. There are 2 basic types of them: classified and non-classified (separate). In classified various kinds of information are arranged according to subject-matter into sections, each bearing an appropriate name. As for the separate, the variety of language form and subject-matter is so great that hardly any essential features common to all be pointed out.

Deliberate breaking-up of set-expressions, deformation of special terms, elliptical Sentences, articles omitted and other stylistic devices. e.g. Conspirator in Chief is Still at Large And What about WAT? (pun) Miller in Maniac Mood (alliteration)

№19

19.1 Interaction of logical and nominal meanings (Antonomasia) is the interplay between the logical and nominal meanings of the word. As in other stylistic devices the two kinds of meanings must be realised simultaneously. Token (символ) or telling names: Mr.Scrooge. Miss Blue Eyes. They give information to the reader about the bearer of the name. The nominal meaning is hardly perceived, the logical meaning is too strong. Antonomasia is intended to point out the leading, most characteristic feature of a person or an event, at the same time pinning (закреп) this leading trait as a proper name to the person or event concerned. e.g. Mr.Facing-Both-Ways; the Noes and Don't Knows would far outnumber the Yesses. 1) the substitution of a title or epithet for a proper name, such as his highness 2) the use of a proper name for an idea. he is a Daniel come to judgment. Antonomasia is brief and picturesque. Several types of antonomasia are distinguished by scholars: 1) a proper noun is used for a common noun. It describes a person’s features and qualities through those commonly associated with the name of some historical figure or some mythological, religious, literary character. Its stylistic function is to give concrete expression to abstract things. - Her husband is an Othello. - Some modern Samsons were walking by. 2) a common noun is used instead of a proper noun. Often they are used to create a humorous effect - Miss Dirty Fringe, - Mr. Know-All, - Mr. Fix-it, - Mr. Facing-both-ways (вашим и нашим). They are usually spelled with hyphens (дефис) between their components to stress their close syntactical and semantic relations. 3) 'speaking names' — names whose origin from common nouns is still clearly perceived. In the 18-19 centuries it was customary to provide literary characters with speaking names. Their stylistic function is to characterize a person through his name: Mr. Scrooge, Oliver Twist, Becky Sharp. They are more frequently used in Russian literature and seldom in English

19.2 Scientific prose style. has 3 subdivisions: 1) the style of humanitarian sciences; 2) the style of "exact" sciences; 3) the style of popular scientific prose. Its function is to work out and ground theoretically objective knowledge about reality. The aim is to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose internal laws of existence, development, relations between different phenomena. The peculiarities are: objectiveness; logical coherence, impersonality, unemotional character, exactness. The scientific prose style consists mostly of ordinary words which tend to be used in their primary logical meaning.                                                                                                                             The impersonal and objective character of scientific prose style is revealed in the frequent use of passive constructions, impersonal sentences. Personal sentences are more frequently used in exact sciences. Scientific popular style has the following peculiarities: emotive words, elements of colloquial style. Features; 1. The logical sequence of utterances 2.The use of specific terms 3. The following sentence patterns:-argumentative –formulative, postulatory 4. The use of quotations and references 5.The use of footnotes (сноска) 6.Impersonality. The impersonality of scientific writings can also be considered a typical feature of this style. Unlike the belles-letters style it is never original, individual but it is always contextually bound and devoid of individuality and originality.

№20 20.1 Intensification of a certain feature of a thins or phenomenon (Simile, Periphrasis)

Simile - the intensification of some feature of the concept in question is realized in a device called simile.

Ordinary comparison and simile shouldn't be confused. To use a simile is to characterize one object by bringing it into contact with another object belonging to an entirely different class of things. Comparison takes into consideration all the properties of the two objects stressing the one that is compared. Simile excludes all the properties of the two objects, except the one which is common to them. e.g. The boy seems to be as clever as his mother, (ordinary comparison, because boy and mother are human beings) Simile: maidens like moths are rather caught by blare. Maidens and moths belong to heterogeneous classes of objects and Byron has found the concept of moths to indicate one of the secondary features of the concept maiden that is being easily lured of the two concepts brought together in the simile one characterized (maidens) and the other characterizing (moth) the feature intensified will be more inherent in the latter than in the former.  Moreover, the object characterized is seen in quite a new and unexpected light because the writer imposed its feature on it. Similes may be based on adjective attributes, adverb modifiers, verb predicates etc. they have formal elements in their structure. Formal elements in the structure of similes - connective words: as, like. such. If not for the structural word we would call the simile a metaphor. F.e. Emily Button was very pink, very Dresden-China-Shepherdess – пастушка с немецкого фарфора. Hackneyed Similes: busy as a bee, blind as a bat, to work like a horse, to fly like a bird. They have seized to be genuine similes and have become cliches in which the second component has become an adverbial intensifier. Their logical meaning is only vaguely perceived.

Periphrasis is a device which denotes the use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter and plainer form of expression. = Circumlocution (иносказание)due to the roundabout or in direct way used to name a familiar object or phenomenon.

Periphrasis aims at pointing to one of the seemingly insignificant features or properties of the given object and intensifies this property by naming the object by this property. The meaning of the device is only understood in context. If it is understandable outside the context it is not a stylistic device but a synonymous expression. These are called traditionally dictionary language. Speech (dictionary) periphrases. The kep and gown graduates. A gentlemen of long robe – a lawyer. The fair sex -  women. My better half.

We are to differentiate traditional periphrasis (language periphrasis) and speech periphrasis. Hackneyed periphrasis: to tie the knot (to marry), high pay and less work. Stylistic periphrasis: -Logical is based on one of the inherent (неотъемлимый) properties of the object described: the most pardonable of human weaknesses (Ch.D.) (love); the object of his admiration: instruments of destruction. The punctual servant of all work – sun. Figurative - is based either on metaphor or on metonymy. The key word of the collocation is used figuratively: in disgrace with fortune and men's eyes.

20.2 The style of official documents is the most conservative. It is not homogeneous and is represented by following varieties1. The language of business documents 2. The language of legal documents 3. The language of diplomacy 4. The language of military documents.

The main aim is to state the conditions, binding two parties in an undertaking (дело). These parties may be: the state and the citizen, society and its member, two or more governments, two companies etc.

The aim of communication is to reach agreement between two contracting parties. A special system of cliches, terms and set-expressions. The code of the official style falls into a system of subcodes each characterized by its terms, compositional form and variety of syntactical arrangement. The most general function of the style of official documents predetermines the peculiarities of the style. The most noticeable of all syntactical features are the compositional patterns of the variants of this style.                 1. conventionality of expression; 2. absence of any emotiveness; 3. the encoded character of language; symbols and 4. a general syntactical mode of combining several pronouncements into one sentence.                                                                                                                      Each of substyles makes use of special terms. Legal documents: military documents, diplomatic documents. The documents use set expressions inherited from early Victorian period. This vocabulary is conservative. Legal documents contain a large proportion of formal and archaic words used in their dictionary meaning. In diplomatic and legal documents many words have Latin and French origin. There are a lot of abbreviations and conventional symbols. The most noticeable feature of grammar is the compositional pattern. Every document has its own stereotyped form. The form itself is informative and tells you with what kind of letter we deal with. Business letters contain: heading, addressing, salutation, the opening, the body, the closing, complimentary clause, the signature. Syntactical features of business letters are - the predominance of extended simple and complex sentences, wide use of participial constructions, homogeneous members. Morphological peculiarities are passive constructions, they make the letters impersonal. Its typical feature is to frame equally important factors and to divide them by members in order to avoid ambiguity (неопределенность) of the wrong interpretation.

№7

7.1 Neutral and common colloquial voc.

Colloquial Neutral Literary

Kid Child Infant

Daddy Father Parent

Chap Fellow Associate

Get out Go away Retire

Teenager Boy / girl Youth

Go ahead / get along Start / begin commence

These synonyms have a definite though slight semantic difference. Colloquial words are more emotionally coloured. Both literary and colloquial words have their upper and lower ranges. The lower range of literary words approaches the neutral layer and has a tendency to pass into that layer. The upper range of colloquial words - the same. The lines of demarcation between common colloquial and neutral on the one hand and common literary and neutral on the other hand are blurred. It is here that the process of interpenetration of the stylistic strata becomes most apparent.

7.2 Syntactical expressive means and stylistic devices (enumeration, suspense, climax)

Enumeration- is a stylistic device by which separate things, objects, phenomena, properties, actions are named one by one, so that they produce a chain, the links of which being syntactically in the same position are forced to display some kind of semantic homogeneity (однородность), remote though they may seem.

Conventionally it may be called a sporadic (случайный) semantic field.

Heterogeneous enumeration (разнородная) is a clash (стык) between terminological vocabulary and common neutral words. Dickens – Scrooge was his soul executor, his soul administrator, his souls assign (начальник), his soul residuary legatee (юр наследник), his soul friend and his soul moaner. The principle production of these tools appears to be soldiers, sailors, Jews, shrimps, offices and dockyard man.

Suspense - is a compositional device which consists in arranging the matter of communication in such a way that the less important descriptive subordinate parts arc amassed at the beginning of the sentence; the main idea being withheld till the end of the sentence. These sentences arc called periodic sentences. Their function is to create suspense and to keep the reader in a state of uncertainly and expectation. F.e. Mankind, says a Chinese manuscript, … for the first seventy thousand years ate their meat row.

Climax (gradation) - is an arrangement of sentences which secures a gradual increase in significance, importance or emotional tension in the utterance. e.g. It was a lovely city, a beautiful city, a fair city, a veritable (истинный) jam of a city. This gradual increase in significance may be maintained in 3 ways: 1.Logically, based on the relative importance of the component parts 2.Emotionally, based on the relative emotional tension. 3. Quantitative (количеств), based on the volume of the corresponding concept. F.e. little by little, bit by bit, and day by day and year by year the baron got the worst of some disputed question. Climax is the means by which the author discloses his welled outlook, his evaluation of objective facts and phenomenon.