The basic features of the British geographical position, topography and climate

I. The basic features of the British geographical position, topography and climate.

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is situated on the British Isles. The British Isles are separated from Europe by the English Channel. The British Isles are washed by the North Sea in the East and the Atlantic Ocean in the West. The territory of Great Britain is divided into four parts: England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. England is the richest, the most populated part in the country. There are mountains in the north and in the west of England, but all the rest of the territory is a plain. Scotland is a land of mountains. Its highest peak is Ben Nevis. The British Isles have many rivers. The longest of them is the Severn. It flows into the Irish Sea. The Thames is over 200 miles long. London, the capital of Great Britain, stands on it. Geographical position of Great Britain is rather good as the country lies on the crossways of the sea routes from Europe to other parts of the world.

The British Isles lie at the juncture of several regions with past episodes of tectonic mountain building. Theseorogenic belts form a complex geology which records a huge and varied span of earth history. Of particular note was the Caledonian Orogeny during the Ordovician Period, c. 488–444 Ma and early Silurian period, when thecraton Baltica collided with the terrane Avalonia to form the mountains and hills in northern Britain and Ireland. Baltica formed roughly the north western half of Ireland and Scotland. Further collisions caused the Vatican in the Devonian and Carboniferous periods, forming the hills of Munster, south-west England, and south Wales. Over the last 500 million years the land which forms the islands has drifted northwest from around 30°S, crossing the equator around 370 million years ago to reach its present northern latitude.

The islands have been shaped by numerous glaciations during the Quaternary Period, the most recent being the Devensian. As this ended, the central Irish Sea was de-glaciated and the English Channel flooded, with sea levels rising to current levels some 4,000 to 5,000 years ago, leaving the British Isles in their current form. Whether or not there was a land bridge between Great Britain and Ireland at this time is somewhat disputed, though there was certainly a single ice sheet covering the entire sea.

The west coasts of Ireland and Scotland that directly face the Atlantic Ocean are generally characterised by long peninsulas, and headlands and bays; the internal and eastern coasts are "smoother". There are about 136 permanently inhabited islands in the group, the largest two being Great Britain and Ireland. Great Britain is to the east and covers 216,777 km² (83,698 sq mi). Ireland is to the west and covers 84,406 km² (32,589 sq mi). The largest of the other islands are to be found in the Hebrides, Orkney and Shetland to the north, Anglesey and the Isle of Man between Great Britain and Ireland, and the Channel Islands near the coast of France.

The islands are at relatively low altitudes, with central Ireland and southern Great Britain particularly low lying: the lowest point in the islands is Holme, Cambridge shire at −2.75 m (−9.02 ft). The Scottish Highlands in the northern part of Great Britain are mountainous, with Ben Nevis being the highest point on the islands at 1,343 m (4,406 ft). Other mountainous areas include Wales and parts of Ireland, however only seven peaks in these areas reach above 1,000 m (3,281 ft). Lakes on the islands are generally not large, although Lough Neagh in Northern Ireland is an exception, covering 381 square kilometers (147 sq mi). The largest freshwater body in Great Britain (by area) is Loch Lomond at 71.1 square kilometres (27 sq mi), and Loch Ness, by volume whilst Loch Morar is the deepest freshwater body in the British Isles, with a maximum depth of 1,017 ft (310 m). There are a number of major rivers within the British Isles. The longest is the Shannon in Ireland at 360.5 km (224 mi). The river Severn at 354 km (220 mi) is the longest in Great Britain. The isles have a temperate marine climate. The North Atlantic Drift ("Gulf Stream") which flows from the Gulf of Mexico brings with it significant moisture and raises temperatures 11 °C (20 °F) above the global average for the islands' latitudes. Winters are cool and wet, with summers mild and also wet. Most Atlantic depressions pass to the north of the islands, combined with the general westerly circulation and interactions with the landmass; this imposes an east-west variation in climate.

The United Kingdom straddles the geographic mid-latitudes between 49-60 N from the equator. It is also positioned on the western seaboard of Eurasia, the world's largest land mass. These boundary conditions allow convergence between moist maritime air and dry continental air. In this area, the large temperature variation creates atmospheric instability and this is a major factor that influences the often unsettled weather the country experiences, where many types of weather can be experienced in a single day. Regional climates in the United Kingdom are influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and latitude. Northern Ireland, Wales and western parts of England and Scotland, being closest to the Atlantic Ocean, are generally the mildest, wettest and windiest regions of the UK, and temperature ranges here are seldom extreme. Eastern areas are drier, cooler and less windy and also experience the greatest daily and seasonal temperature variations. Northern areas are generally cooler, wetter and have a slight bigger temperature range than southern areas. Though the UK is mostly under the influence of the maritime tropical air from the south-west, different regions are more susceptible than others when different air masses affect the country: Northern Ireland and the west of Scotland are the most exposed to the maritime polar air mass which brings cool moist air; the east of Scotland and north-east England are more exposed to the continental polar air mass which brings cold dry air; the south and south-east of England are more exposed to the continental tropical air mass which brings warm dry air (and consequently most of the time the warmest summer temperatures); Wales and the south-west of England are the most exposed to the maritime tropical air mass which brings warm moist air. If the air masses are strong enough in their respective areas during the summer there can sometimes be a massive difference in temperature between the far north/north-west of Scotland (including the Islands) and south-east of England - usually around 10-15°C (18-27°F) but can be as much as 20°C (36°F) or more. An example of this could be that in the height of summer the Northern Isles could be sitting at around 15°C (59°F) and areas around London could be basking at 30°C (86°F).

II.

1. The total area of the British Isles is 315 100 km²
2. Scotland was joined to England by the Act of The Union of England and Scotland 1603,  full title An Act authorizing certain Commissioners of the realm of England to treat with Commissioners of Scotland, for the weal of both kingdoms.
3. The first inhabitants of the British Isles were Britons.
4. The Roman conquest (Emperor Claudius) happened in 43 AD.
5. The largest Anglo-Saxon  kingdom was Wessex.
6. The unification of Britain happened in 927.
7. The battle of Hastings happened in 1066.
8. The British Commonwealth of Nations includes 54 countries.

III. The Democratic Movements in the Course of the British Bourgeois Revolution.

"English Revolution" has been used to describe two different events in English history. The first to be so called—by Whig historians—was the Glorious Revolution of 1688, whereby James II was replaced by William III and Mary II as monarch and a constitutional monarchy was established. In the twentieth-century, however, Marxist historians introduced the use of the term "English Revolution" to describe the period of the English Civil Wars and Commonwealth period (1640–1660), in which Parliament challenged King Charles I's authority, engaged in civil conflict against his forces, and executed him in 1649. This was followed by a ten-year period of bourgeois republican government, the "Commonwealth", before monarchy was restored in the shape of Charles' son, Charles II in 1660.

As it gradually grew more powerful, the English bourgeoisie came to express its dissatisfaction with the King’s absolute power in ever stronger terms. Meanwhile the King and his loyal supporters failed to realise that in face of the successful development of a capitalist economy and the emergence of the bourgeois class feudalism was doomed. The first Kings of the new Stuart dynasty, James I (1603–1625) and Charles I (1625–1649), strove despite pressure from Parliament to assert their unlimited power as absolute monarchs. The financial policy pursued by these Kings met with a particularly cold reception. According to a law passed in the fourteenth century new taxes could only be introduced with the consent of Parliament, and on more than one occasion Parliament refused to approve new taxes. In the reign of Charles I (son of James I) the conflict between Crown and Parliament came to a head. In 1628, Parliament presented a Petition of Right to the King, who dissolved Parliament the following year and did not convene it again for eleven years. Charles’ chief counsellor at that time was Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, who advised him to defy Parliament and initiate Personal Rule exercising his royal prerogatives. This would have been possible if it had not been for the fact that the King had neither the right to introduce new taxes without the consent of Parliament nor complete control of the army. In order to gain control of the army, Charles sent his minion, the Earl of Strafford, to Ireland as Lord Deputy in 1631, with the task of mustering an army there on the pretext of quelling an Irish revolt. In an attempt to raise money, in 1635 Charles reintroduced ship money, a tax which had been decreed before Parliament had come into being when money was demanded from the inhabitants of the coastal countries to help ward off the attacks of the Normans; the King also tried to levy other taxes but met with sharp opposition from Parliament. In 1631 a rebellion broke out in Scotland in answer to Charles’ attempt to extend English absolutism to that part of the realm as well, and introduce the Church of England there, which was loyal to the Crown, whereas by that time Calvinism in its Scottish form, Presbyterianism, had taken root in Scotland. From the very beginning of the rebellion the situation looked extremely grave for King Charles. He was short of money and had no army at his disposal and was thus obliged to convene Parliament. In April 1640 Parliament was convened after an interval of eleven years: however, not only did the new Parliament refuse to give the King any money but it continued to advance major demands aimed at curbing royal power and even entered into secret negotiations with the Scots. The King dissolved Parliament once more after no more than a few weeks had elapsed and this Parliament as a result came to be known as the Short Parliament. The King meanwhile was still short of funds and the rebellion was gaining ground, so that in November of that same year Charles was obliged to convene Parliament once more. This time he faced still tougher opposition than before. Well aware of the King’s difficult position Parliament firmly insisted on his complying with its demands. The walls of London were soon covered with revolutionary slogans and the government was afraid to dissolve Parliament, which indeed was destined to become the Parliament of the English bourgeois revolution. It came to be known as the Long Parliament as it was not dissolved for twelve years. Parliament succeeded in condemning the Earl Strafford by act of attainder and he was sentenced to death as a traitor. Not long afterwards a similar fate was to befall another champion of absolutism Archbishop Laud. Parliament abolished the prerogative courts and the King’s right to raise ship money, reasserted its right to control the levy of taxes and in November 1641 forced through the "Grand Remonstrance”, which listed the unlawful acts of the King and demanded that all important posts in the realm should be occupied by "such as henceforth the Parliament may have cause to confide in". Enraged at this the King appeared in Parliament and ordered the arrest of the leaders of the opposition, but they had already gone into hiding in the City (the leading trading houses and banks belonging to the bourgeoisie were situated in the City and it was firmly in support of the opposition). Unrest broke out in the town. Large bands of sailors came up from the docks to defend the leaders of the opposition. In January 1642 the King left London for the north-west and started to muster his loyal followers. In August he declared war on Parliament. After the King had been handed over to the army as a prisoner, the Presbyterians in Parliament considered that the revolution was over and were ready to negotiate a peace with the King. However, the revolutionary ardor of the popular masses who had gained nothing from the five years’ war had in no way been calmed. The common soldiers in the army chose to fight on and a new party known as the Levellers came into being, led by John Lilburn (1618–1657), who demanded universal suffrage, the abolition of the monarchy and the return of enclosed land to the peasants. Political power was soon in the hands of the army and Parliament decided to disband it on the pretext that the war was over. This decree gave rise to indignation in the army and the regiments proceeded to elect their representatives—Agitators—to form councils of soldiers’ representatives who demanded decisive action from the Grands (as the officers or the Independent military leaders were known among the common soldiers). In order to keep the soldiers under control Cromwell set up the General Army Council, in which soldiers were under the surveillance of their officers. Soon afterwards the army occupied London and had the country virtually in its hands. However class conflict was now to break out in the army. The officers and Levellers could not agree on the nature of the future political structure of the state to be adopted. The Grands were wary of universal suffrage, claiming that the poor might seize power and do away with private property. These conflicting interests soon led to a revolt of the Levellers and common soldiers. Cromwell put down the revolt and disbanded the Army Council, leaving only the council of officers. Counter-revolutionary elements now came to the fore, making currency out of the clash of interests in the army. Presbyterians in Parliament came to terms with the Royalists and the King succeeded in escaping and taking refuge among the Scottish lords who mustered an army of twenty thousand men and marched into England to confront Cromwell’s army. Well aware of the dangerous situation, the Grands and the Levellers closed their ranks once more and Cromwell’s army succeeded in defeating the Scots. The King was arrested and called to account for all the bloodshed perpetrated on his orders, and the injury he had brought to God’s cause and the poor English nation. The army removed the Presbyterians from Parliament and the Independents who remained in office sentenced the King to death for High Treason. On January 30th, 1649, the King was beheaded and England was proclaimed a Republic without a King or House of Lords. In 1653 Cromwell dissolved what was left of the Long Parliament and in 1654 he was proclaimed Lord Protector of the Republic, thus becoming sole ruler of England. While he was in power he dealt quite ruthlessly both with Leveller and Royalist oppositions. He put down revolts in Ireland and Scotland and declared these countries part of the English state for all time (1654). Cromwell also gained a number of successes in the sphere of foreign policy. After routing England’s main trade rival Holland and obliging her to acknowledge the Navigation Act which had been drawn up in 1651 and according to which goods to be sold in England could be brought to English shores only by English ships or those of the country producing the goods in question. This dealt a disastrous blow to Dutch trade. Cromwell seized the island of Jamaica from Spain, which was then the centre of the slave-trade, and Dunkirk in the Spanish Netherlands. In 1658 Cromwell died at the height of his power. However, the bourgeoisie, the new ruling class, fearing a new wave of revolution and the involvement of the broad masses of the people soon restored the monarchy in the person of Charles II (1660–1685), followed by James II (1685–1688). When these last Stuart Kings tried to revert to the policies of their predecessors, the bourgeoisie drove the dynasty out once and for all in what was known as the Glorious Revolution, when without any bloodshed William of Orange and his consort Mary, close relatives of Stuarts, were invited to ascend the throne. This event marked the final victory of Parliament, which provided a more realistic reflection of the balance of class interests in the country than Stuart absolutism. The English revolution did away with the last vestiges of feudalism and a new monarchy took shape whose powers were limited by Parliament. The essence of this parliamentary system consisted in the country being ruled by the party receiving the majority of votes in parliamentary elections. Ministers were appointed from among the leaders of the majority party and the government was responsible to Parliament. This meant that if the government was not accorded the support of Parliament then it would be obliged to relinquish power. However, the ruling parties in Parliament did not stand for the people’s true interests since it was only a small section of the population, men of noble birth or ample means who enjoyed the right to vote.

IV.

1. The English Bourgeois Revolution happened in 1640.
2. Puritanism was a religious reform movement that arose within the Church of England in the late sixteenth century.
3. The first document limiting the King’s power was Magna Carta in 1215.
4. The «Grand Remonstrance» was a document of grievances presented to King Charles I of England by the English Parliament on 1 December 1641.
5. The parliamentary forces during the Civil War were called "Roundheads".
6. In May 1660 there was a Restoration.

V. The Economic conditions Under Which Chartism Started

Chartism was a Victorian era working class movement for political reform in Britain between 1838 and 1848. It takes its name from the People's Charter of 1838. The term "Chartism" is the umbrella name for numerous loosely-coordinated local groups, often named "Working Men's Association," articulating grievances in many cities from 1837. Its peak activity came in 1839, 1842 and 1848. It began among skilled artisans in small shops, such as shoemakers, printers, and tailors. The movement was more aggressive in areas with many distressed handloom workers, such as in Lancashire and the Midlands. It began as a petition movement which tried to mobilize "moral force", but soon attracted men who advocated strikes, General strikes and physical violence, such as Feargus O'Connor and known as "physical force" chartists. One faction issued the "People's Charter" in 1838 and it was widely adopted by the movement. The People's Charter called for six basic reforms to make the political system more democratic:

1. A vote for every man over the age of 21;
2. A secret ballot;
3. No property qualification for members of Parliament;
4. Payment for MPs (so poor men could serve);
5. Constituencies of equal size;
6. Annual elections for Parliament.

Eventually, the first five goals were achieved, but that happened long after Chartism was a spent force.

Chartism flourished in hard times, and faded during prosperity. Political elites saw the movement as dangerous and refused to negotiate with it or deal with its demands. The government permanently crushed the movement in 1848. The movement produced no immediate reforms, but it did attract the attention of the working class, which was not allowed to vote. Historians see Chartism as both a continuation of the 18th century fight against corruption and as a new stage in demands for democracy in an industrial society. Industrial and agricultural workers disliked the new conditions of nineteenth-century factory discipline, low wages, periodic unemployment and high prices. There was much resentment at the widening gulf between rich and poor. There was discontent because of exploitation in factories. Traditional hand-workers were facing extreme distress in the face of competition from machines. There were few alternatives: they could join the factory workers or go in the workhouse. Grievances existed in mutually hostile groups from declining and rising industries. The 1815 Corn Laws and a protectionist economy still prevailed despite Huskisson's reforms of the 1820s. The Corn Laws kept food prices artificially high and therefore depressed domestic markets for manufactures — thus depressing employment. Foreign markets were also undercut, further reducing factory output and exports. Reforms were also needed in banking, customs and taxation. The 1830s also saw a series of bad harvests. Taxation fell mainly on the working classes in indirect taxation. At least 16% of real wages were consumed by taxes. The abolition of income tax in 1816 worsened the situation. The real value of wages was diminished and bad harvests made things worse. There were a series of fiscal crises in the 1830s. The Whigs were in power from 1830 to 1841: they were weak in economic strategy and left a huge deficit on leaving office. They made no attempt to reform banking or the currency.Between 1836-38 about 63 banks crashed in England. Little money was available for investment, which led to unemployment at a time of high food prices. Much bullion had been invested in America where good returns could be made. Federal governments borrowed and Britain invested, then in 1837 President Jackson refused to re-charter the Bank of the United States, and caused a financial panic in America. Also the 1838 harvest was poor so bullion was exported to buy food. Industry suffered; there was massive unemployment and higher food prices.

By the later '30s, the home demand for the products of industry, together "with the available export market, was insufficient to consume the whole of the potential... The contrast between the economic potential and the condition of the people was at its sharpest" (Checkland). Contemporary writers pointed out the disparity in the distribution of wealth in this period. Disraeli, later leader of the Tories, drew in his novel Sybil or The Two Nations a picture of England sharply divided into the haves and the have-nots (1845); Dickens exposed conditions in his books, such as Hard Times (1854) and Oliver Twist (1837); Thomas Arnold, headmaster of Rugby School echoed these sentiments and saw the grave possibility of class revolution; Friedrich Engels wrote Condition of the English Working Classes in 1844, acquiring his raw material from evidence in Manchester. Karl Marx used Engels' work as a basis for his own Das Kapital. The Anti-Corn-Law League was affected by the same economic conditions but sought to solve the problem with economic ideas: i.e. repeal of the Corn Laws and the introduction of free trade.

VI.

1. The inventions that make up the English Industrial Revolution are textiles, steam power, iron making.
2. Steam engine was invented in  1698.
3. The first mechanized industry was textiles.
4. The workers who broke machinery were called Luddites.
5. The London Working-Men’s Association was formed in 1836.
6. Feargus O’Connor represented the interests of the English working classes.

VII. The Functions of British Monarch

Monarchy is the oldest form of government in the United Kingdom. In a monarchy, a king or queen is Head of State. The British monarchy is known as a constitutional monarchy. This means that, while The Sovereign is Head of State, the ability to make and pass legislation resides with an elected Parliament.

Although the British Sovereign no longer has a political or executive role, he or she continues to play an important part in the life of the nation. As Head of State, The Monarch undertakes constitutional and representational duties which have developed over one thousand years of history. In addition to these State duties, The Monarch has a less formal role as 'Head of Nation'. The Sovereign acts as a focus for national identity, unity and pride; gives a sense of stability and continuity; officially recognises success and excellence; and supports the ideal of voluntary service. In all these roles The Sovereign is supported by members of their immediate family. The British Sovereign can be seen as having two roles: Head of State, and 'Head of the Nation'. As Head of State, The Queen undertakes constitutional and representational duties which have developed over one thousand years of history. There are inward duties, with The Queen playing a part in State functions in Britain. Parliament must be opened, Orders in Council have to be approved, Acts of Parliament must be signed, and meetings with the Prime Minister must be held. There are also outward duties of State, when The Queen represents Britain to the rest of the world. For example, The Queen receives foreign ambassadors and high commissioners, entertains visiting Heads of State, and makes State visits overseas to other countries, in support of diplomatic and economic relations. As 'Head of Nation', The Queen's role is less formal, but no less important for the social and cultural functions it fulfils. These include: providing a focus for national identity, unity and pride; giving a sense of stability and continuity; recognising success, achievement and excellence; and supporting service to others, particularly through public service and the voluntary sector.  
These roles are performed through different types of engagement.  By means of regular visits through every part of the United Kingdom, The Queen is able to act as a focus for national unity and identity. Through her engagements and walkabouts, The Queen is able to meet people from every walk of life. The Queen's unifying role as Sovereign is also shown in her special relationships with the devolved assemblies in Scotland and Wales. In addition, at times of national celebration or tragedy, The Queen publicly represents the nation's mood - for example, at annual commemoration of the war dead on Remembrance Sunday, or at celebrations for a national sporting victory. The Queen also has an essential role in providing a sense of stability and continuity in times of political and social change. The system of constitutional monarchy bridges the discontinuity of party politics.  While political parties change constantly, the Sovereign continues as Head of State, providing a stable framework within which a government can introduce wide-ranging reforms. With more than five decades of reading State papers, meeting Heads of State and ambassadors and holding a weekly audience with the Prime Minister, The Queen has an unequalled store of experience upon which successive Prime Ministers have been able to draw.  The Queen is able to recognise success and achievement in a personal way. These include honours, awards, visits, patronage and sponsorship. At Investitures, for example, The Queen honours individuals for public service or outstanding achievement. The Queen's role is to: 
 
Perform the ceremonial and official duties of Head of State, including  
representing Britain to the rest of the world; 
 
Provide a focus for national identity and unity; 
 
Provide stability and continuity in times of change; 
 
Recognise achievement and excellence; 
 
Encourage public and voluntary service.

The Queen also hosts garden parties to which guests from all backgrounds are invited, most of whom are nominated by charities and public sector organisations for their service to their communities. In the thousands of messages sent by The Queen each year to people celebrating their 100th birthdays or diamond weddings, Her Majesty is able to give special and personal recognition of remarkable individuals. The Queen also supports service to others, through close relationships with the voluntary and charitable sector. About 3,000 organisations list a member of the Royal Family as patron or president. The Queen has over 600 patronages and The Duke of Edinburgh over 700. In all these roles, The Queen is supported by members of the Royal Family, who carry out many of the engagements which Her Majesty cannot undertake in person.

VII.

1. The UK was proclaimed in 1707.
2. The upright cross on Union Jack is the symbol of St. Jeorge, the patron saint of England.
3. Scotland is represented in the House of Commons by 69 MPs for 2011.
4. The symbol of Northern Ireland is a shamrock.
5. The English Parliament was established in 1801.
6. The House of Lord includes 775 peers.
7. The House of Common includes 650 MPs.
8. The functional electoral system in Britain is called Preferential voting or rank voting.