Some information for visitors. Yellowstone is one of the most popular national parks in the United States. Since the mid-1960s, at least 2 million tourists have visited the park almost every year. At peak summer levels; 3,700 employees work for Yellowstone National Park concessionaires. Concessionaires manage nine hotels and lodges, with a total of 2,238 hotel rooms and cabins available. They also oversee gas stations, stores and most of the campgrounds. Another 800 employees work either permanently or seasonally for the National Park Service. Park service roads lead to major features. Park roads are closed to wheeled vehicles from early November to mid April, but some park roads remain closed until mid-May. There is no public transportation available inside the park, but several tour companies can be contacted for guided motorized transport. In the winter, concessionaires operate guided snowmobile and snow coach tours (APPENDIX C, Ill.19 – Ill.24).

     The National Park Service maintains 9 visitor centers and museums and is responsible for maintenance of historical structures and many of the other 2,000 buildings. Camping is available at a dozen campgrounds with more than 2,000 campsites. Camping is also available in surrounding National Forests. Backcountry campsites are accessible only by foot or by horseback and require a permit. Hunting is not permitted, though it is allowed in the surrounding national forests during season. Fishing is a popular activity, and a Yellowstone Park fishing license is required to fish in park waters. Boating is prohibited on rivers [17].

     2.2 Grand Canyon

     The Grand Canyon is a steep-sided gorge carved by the Colorado River in the United States in the state of Arizona. It is largely contained within the Grand Canyon National Park, one of the first national parks in the United States. President Theodore Roosevelt was a major proponent of preservation of the Grand Canyon area, and visited it on numerous occasions to hunt and enjoy the scenery (APPENDIX C, Ill.25, Ill.26) [18, Pp. 7-9].

     History. The Ancestral Puebloans, also known as the Ancient Pueblo Peoples and Anasazi (or «Ancient Ones»), were the first people to reside in the Grand Canyon area. For a long time there were a lot of different expeditions, discoveries (APPENDIX C, Ill.27 – Ill.29). Many famous writers, forwarding agents, geologists and other people had been visiting Grand Canyon during centuries.

     US President Theodore Roosevelt visited the Grand Canyon in 1903. An avid outdoorsman and staunch conservationist, he established the Grand Canyon Game Preserve on November 28, 1906. Livestock grazing was reduced, but predators such as mountain lions, eagles, and wolves, were eradicated. Roosevelt added adjacent national forest lands and redesignated the preserve a US National Monument on January 11, 1908 (APPENDIX C, Ill.30). Opponents such as land and mining claim holders blocked efforts to reclassify the monument as a US National Park for 11 years. Grand Canyon National Park was finally established as the 17th US National Park by an Act of Congress signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson on February 26, 1919. The federal government administrators who manage park resources face many challenges. The Grand Canyon National Park superintendent is Steve Martin, a famous American actor [18, Pp. 9-15; 19].

     Geography and Geology. The Grand Canyon is a massive rift in the Colorado Plateau that exposes uplifted Proterozoic and Paleozoic strata, and is also one of the six distinct physiographic sections of the Colorado Plateau province. It is not the deepest canyon in the world, or the widest – but the Grand Canyon is known for its visually overwhelming size and its intricate and colorful landscape. Geologically it is significant because of the thick sequence of ancient rocks that are beautifully preserved and exposed in the walls of the canyon. These rock layers record much of the early geologic history of the North American continent. The Park contains several major ecosystems. Its great biological diversity can be attributed to the presence of five of the seven life zones and three of the four desert types in North America. The five life zones represented are the Lower Sonoran, Upper Sonoran, Transition, Canadian, and Hudsonian.

     The Colorado River basin (of which the Grand Canyon is a part) has developed in the past 40 million years. A recent study places the origins of the canyon beginning some 17 million years ago. Previous estimates had placed the age of the canyon at 5 to 6 million years. The major geologic exposures in the Grand Canyon range in age from the 2 billion year old Vishnu Schist at the bottom of the Inner Gorge to the 230 million year old Kaibab Limestone on the Rim. That indicates a period of erosion between two periods of deposition. The result of all this erosion is one of the most complete geologic columns on the planet. Many of the formations were deposited in warm shallow seas, near-shore environments (such as beaches), and swamps. Weather conditions during the ice ages also increased the amount of water in the Colorado River drainage system. The ancestral Colorado River responded by cutting its channel faster and deeper. About 1 million years ago, volcanic activity (mostly near the western canyon area) deposited ash and lava over the area, which at times completely obstructed the river. These volcanic rocks are the youngest in the canyon (APPENDIX C, Ill.31-Ill.34) [18, Pp. 21-26; 20].

     Biology and Ecology. There are approximately 1,737 known species of vascular plants, 167 species of fungi, 64 species of moss, and 195 species of lichen found in Grand Canyon National Park. This variety is largely due to the 8,000 foot elevation change from the Colorado River up to the highest point on the North Rim. Grand Canyon boasts a dozen endemic plants (known only within the Park's boundaries) while only 10 percent of the Park’s flora is exotic. 63 plants found here have been given special status by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. Natural seeps and springs percolating out of the canyon walls are home to 11percent of all the plant species found in the Grand Canyon. The Canyon itself can act as a connection between the east and the west by providing corridors of appropriate habitat along its length. The canyon can also be a genetic barrier to some species, like the Tassel-eared squirrel. Typical warm desert species such as creosote bush, white bur sage, brittle brush, cat claw acacia, ocotillo, mariola, western honey mesquite, four-wing saltbush, big sagebrush, black brush and rubber rabbit brush grow in this community. Of the 34 mammal species found along the Colorado River corridor, 15 are rodents, and 8 are bats [18, Pp. 27-31].

     There are 4 life zones in the Grand Canyon: the Lower Sonoran, the Upper Sonoran, the Transition, and the Canadian. The Lower Sonoran life zone spans from the Colorado River up to 3500 feet. Along the Colorado River and its perennial tributaries, a riparian community exists. Coyote willow, arrow weed, seep willow, western honey mesquite, cat claw acacia, and exotic tamarisk (salt cedar) are the predominant species. Hanging gardens, seeps and springs often contain rare plants such as the white-flowering redbud tree, stream orchid, and McDougall’s flaveria. Endangered fish in the river include the Humpback Chub and the Razorback Sucker. The three most common amphibians in these riparian communities are the canyon tree frog, red-spotted toad, and Wood house’s rocky mountain toad. The insect species commonly found in the river corridor and tributaries are midges, caddis flies, mayflies, stoneflies, black flies, mites, beetles, butterflies, moths, and fire ants. Numerous species of spiders and several species of scorpions including the bark scorpion and the giant desert hairy scorpion inhabit the riparian zone. There are approximately 47 reptile species in Grand Canyon National Park. Some of the common insects found at elevations above 2,000 feet are orange paper wasps, honey bees, black flies, tarantula hawks, stink bugs, beetles, black ants, and monarch and swallowtail butterflies. Solpugids, wood spiders, garden spiders, black widow spiders and tarantulas can are found in the desert scrub and higher elevations.

     The Upper Sonoran Life Zone includes most of the inner canyon and South Rim. This zone is generally dominated by black brush, sagebrush, and pinyon-juniper woodlands. This community is dominated by the four-winged saltbush and creosote bush; other important plants include Utah agave, narrow leaf mesquite, cat claw, and various cacti species. The conifer forests provide habitat for 52 mammal species. Porcupines, shrews, red squirrels, tassel eared Kaibab and Abert’s squirrels, black bear, mule deer, and elk are found at the park's higher elevations on the Kaibab Plateau. Within this woodland one can find big sagebrush, snakeweed, Mormon tea, Utah agave, banana and narrow leaf Yuca, winterfat, Indian rice grass, drop seed, and needle grass.

     Ponderosa pine forests grow in the Transition life zone. The South Rim is includes species such as gray fox, mule deer, bighorn sheep, rock squirrels, pinyon pine and Utah juniper. Additional species such as Gambel oak, New Mexico locust, mountain mahogany, elderberry, creeping mahonia, and fescue have been identified in these forests. The Utah tiger salamander and the Great Basin spade foot toad are two amphibians that are common in the rim forests. Of the approximately 90 bird species that breed in the coniferous forests, 51 are summer residents and at least 15 of these are known to be Neotropical migrants.

     Elevations are in the Canadian Life Zone, which includes the North Rim and the Kaibab Plateau. Spruce-fir forests characterized by Engelmann spruce, blue spruce, Douglas fir, white fir, aspen, and mountain ash, along with several species of perennial grasses, groundsels, yarrow, cinquefoil, lupines, sedges, and asters, grow in this sub-alpine climate. Mountain lions, Kaibab squirrels, and northern goshawks are found here. Montane meadows and subalpine grassland communities of the Hudsonian life zone are rare and located only on the North Rim. Both are typified by many grass species. Some of these grasses include blue and black grama, big galleta, Indian rice grass, and three-awns. The wettest areas support sedges and forbs [21].

     Some information for visitors. Grand Canyon National Park is one of the world’s premier natural attractions, attracting about five million visitors per year. Overall, 83 percent were from the United States: California (12.2 percent), Arizona (8.9 percent), Texas (4.8 percent), Florida (3.4 percent), and New York (3.2 percent) represented the top domestic visitors. 17 percent of visitors were from outside the United States; the most prominently represented nations were the United Kingdom (3.8 percent), Canada (3.5 percent), Japan (2.1 percent), Germany (1.9 percent), and The Netherlands (1.2 percent). Aside from casual sightseeing from the South rafting, hiking, running, and helicopter tours are especially popular. In October 2010, the North Rim is the host to an ultra marathon. The Grand Canyon Ultra Marathon is a 126 km race over 24 hours. The floor of the valley is accessible by foot, mule back, or by boat or raft from upriver. Camping on the North and South Rims is generally restricted to established campgrounds and reservations are highly recommended, especially at the busier South Rim. There is at large camping available along many parts of the North Rim managed by Kaibab National Forest. Keep in mind North Rim campsites are only open seasonally due to road closures from weather and winter snowpack. All overnight camping below the rim requires a backcountry permit from the Backcountry Country Office (BCO). The Coconino Canyon Train is another option for those seeking to take in a more leisurely view of the canyon. It is a 90-minute ride that originates in Grand Canyon National Park at the old Grand Canyon Depot. Tourists wishing for a more vertical perspective can board helicopters and small airplanes in Las Vegas, Phoenix, and Grand Canyon National Park Airport for canyon flyovers (APPENDIX C, Ill.31-Ill.34) [22, Pp. 143-151; 23].

     Grand Canyon – «one of the most remote in the United States», according to the National Park Service [6, Pp. 32-33] - is reached only by one of three lengthy dirt tracks beginning in from St. George, Utah, Colorado City or near Pipe Spring National Monument (both in Arizona). Each road traverses wild, uninhabited land for 97, 62 and 64 miles respectively. The Park Service manages the area for primitive value with minimal improvements and services [24]. 

     2.3 Big Bend National Park

     Big Bend National Park is a national park located in the US State of Texas. The Rio Grande forms the international boundary between Mexico and the United States, and Big Bend National Park administers approximately 244 miles (393 km) along that boundary. Because the Rio Grande serves as an international boundary, the park faces unusual constraints when administering and enforcing park rules, regulations, and policies. In accordance with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the park has jurisdiction only to the center of the deepest river channel as the river flowed in 1848. The rest of the land south of that channel, and the river, lies within Mexican territory (APPENDIX C, Ill.35) [25, Pp. 41-43].

     History. During the early historic period several Indian groups were recorded as inhabiting the Big Bend. The origin of those Indians is not known. The Jumano was a nomadic group that travelled and traded throughout west Texas and southeastern New Mexico. Around the beginning of the 18th century, the Mescalero Apaches began to invade the Big Bend region. One of the last Native American groups to use the Big Bend was the Comanches. These raids continued until the mid 19th century. In the late 19th and early 20th century, the discovery of valuable mineral deposits brought more settlers who worked in the mines or supported the mines by farming or by cutting timber for use in the mines and smelters. In the 1930s, many people who loved the Big Bend country saw that it was a land of unique contrast and beauty that was worth preserving for future generations. In 1933, the Texas Legislature passed legislation to establish Texas Canyons State Park. Later that year, the park was redesignated Big Bend State Park. The State of Texas deeded the land that it had acquired to the Federal government of the United States, and on June 12, 1944, Big Bend National Park became a reality. The park opened to visitors on July 1, 1944 [26].

     Geography and Geology. The park exhibits dramatic contrasts. The 118 miles (190 km) of river that form the southern park boundary include the spectacular canyons of Santa Elena, Mariscal, and Boquillas. The vegetative belt extends into the desert along creeks and arroyos. South of the border lay the Mexican states of Chihuahua and Coahuila and the new protected areas for flora and fauna, which are regions known as the Maderas del Carmen and the Cañón de Santa Elena (APPENDIX C, Ill.36). The oldest recorded tectonic activity in the park is related to the Paleozoic Marathon orogeny, although it is possible that Proterozoic events have some deep control. Also during this time, the Chihuahua trough formed as the Gulf of Mexico opened, which resulted in east-west striking normal faulting. As a result of this depositional time, there is dinosaur, forest, and other fossils preserved in the park. During the middle Tertiary most of the volcanic rocks, including the Chisos group (APPENDIX C, Ill.37, Ill.38), the Pine Canyon (APPENDIX C, Ill.42) caldera complex and the Burro Mesa Formation, formed [25, Pp. 45-51].

     Biology and Ecology. Given its harsh environment, Big Bend has an amazing variety and number of plant and animal species. It has more than 1200 species of plants including 60 different cacti species, more than 600 animal species, and about 3600 insect species. The diversity of life is largely due to the diverse ecology and changes in elevation, ranging from the dry, hot desert to the cool mountains to the fertile river valley [27].

     Most of the animals are not visible in the day, particularly in the desert. The park comes alive at night, with many of the animals foraging for food. About 150 mountain lion sightings are reported per year. Other species that inhabit the park include jackrabbit, kangaroo rat, roadrunner, Golden Eagle, and coyote. Black bears are also present in the mountain areas.

     The variety of cactus and other plant life add color to the Big Bend region. Cacti species in the park include prickly pear, claret cup and pitaya. In the spring, the wildflowers are in full bloom and the yucca flowers display bright colors. Bluebonnets are prevalent in Big Bend, and white and pink bluebonnets are sometimes visible by the road. Other flowering plants such as the desert marigold, desert willow, ocotillo, rock nettle, and lechuguilla abound in Big Bend (APPENDIX C, Ill.40, Ill.41) [28].

     Some information for visitors. Big Bend is one of the largest, most remote, and least-visited national parks in the lower 48 United States. Big Bend’s primary attraction is its hiking and backpacking trails. Particularly notable among these are the Chimneys Trail, the Marufo Vega trail, and the Outer Mountain Loop trail in the Chisos. Other notable locations include Santa Elena Canyon, Grapevine Hills, and the Mule Ears, two imposing rock towers in the middle of the desert. The park administers 245 miles (394 km) of the Rio Grande for recreational use. There are professional river outfitters that provide tours of the river. Use of a personal boat is permitted but a free river float permit is required. In June 2009, the Department of Homeland Security began treating all float trips as trips that had left and re-entered the country, and required participants to have an acceptable form of identification, such as a passport. Another popular activity is bird watching with more than 450 species of birds recorded in the park. Many species stop in the park during their migrations. There are five paved roads in Big Bend: Persimmon Gap, Panther Junction, Maverick Entrance Station, Chisos Basin Road, and Ross Maxwell Scenic Drive (APPENDIX C, Ill. 39) [25, Pp. 55-57]. 
 

     2.4 Grand Teton National Park 

     Grand Teton National Park is a United States National Park located in northwestern Wyoming, south of Yellowstone National Park. The park is named after the Grand Teton - the tallest mountain in the Teton Range (APPENDIX C, Ill.43, Ill.45).

     The name «Tetons» originally was intended to describe several hills near the town of Arco, Idaho. They were named by a French trapper who thought that they resembled the female body. Many years later, the name was mistakenly applied to the mountains of present day Grand Teton National Park due to the poor map-making and map-reading standards of the time.

     Thus, Grand Teton National Park was established on February 26, 1929 (APPENDIX C, Ill.44, and Ill.46) [29, Pp. 2-7].

     History. Native American hunting parties from the northern Rocky Mountains camped along the Shore of Jackson Lake around 12,000 years ago while following game. For thousands of years Jackson Hole was used as a neutral crossroads for trade and travel routes in the area. One route followed the Snake River to its source in the Yellowstone area where abundant obsidian could be found. Another major route traversed the Teton Pass at the southern end of the range, providing a shortcut to the Pacific Northwest region of what is now the United States.