As a consequence of Mary’s
execution Catholic opposition to England grew. In particular Phillip
II of Spain was determined to return Catholicism to England. There was
a real threat of a Spanish invasion and in September, 1588 the powerful
Spanish Armada set sail for England; threatening to make invasion a
reality. Threatened with potential invasion Queen Elizabeth showed her
real strength as a leader. She personally visited the troops at Tilbury
and gave a famous speech. Her words included:
“I know I have the body
but of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of
a king, and of a king of England too.”
Her speech was enthusiastically
greeted by her troops. The subsequent defeat of the heavily fortified
Spanish Armada was greeted as a triumph for England and in particular
Queen Elizabeth. Her personal popularity reached an all time high. It
is said she was an early skilled operator of PR. She often met her subjects
in person; by being highly visible she made the monarchy accessible
and popular as never before. Towards the end of her reign she is reported
to have said.
”This I account the glory
of my crown, that I have reigned with your loves”.
She had many important skills
as both Queen and statesman. She was quick witted, intelligent and articulate.
She surrounded herself with skilled advisors and defused many potential
crises. However she was also criticised for being at times both ruthless
and indecisive. Several political opponents were executed for treason,
although in comparison to her grandfather Henry VIII her reign was comparatively
enlightened.
Throughout her life she remained
unmarried, despite the frequent attempts of parliament to persuade her
to provide a heir. However despite many relationships with members of
the court Elizabeth never gave any indication she wished to marry. For
this reason she was often referred to as the “virgin queen”. However
her lack of direct heir meant she was the last of the Tudor monarchs.
After her death the Crown passed to James I
2.6 Victoria of the United
Kingdom
In 1837 Queen Victoria took
the throne after the death of her uncle William IV. Due to her secluded
childhood, she displayed a personality marked by strong prejudices and
a willful stubbornness.
Barely eighteen, she refused
any further influence from her domineering mother and ruled in her own
stead. Popular respect for the Crown was at a low point at her coronation,
but the modest and straightforward young Queen won the hearts of her
subjects. She wished to be informed of political matters, although she
had no direct input in policy decisions. The Reform Act of 1832 had
set the standard of legislative authority residing in the House of Lords,
with executive
authority resting within a
cabinet formed of members of the House of Commons; the monarch was essentially
removed from the loop. She respected and worked well with Lord Melbourne
(Prime Minister in the early years of her reign) and England grew both
socially and economically.
On Feb 10th, 1840, only three
years after taking the throne, Victoria took her first vow and married
her cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Their relationship was
one of great love and admiration. Together they bore nine children -
four sons and five daughters: Victoria, Bertie, Alice, Alfred, Helena,
Louise, Arthur, Leopold, and Beatrice.
Prince Albert replaced Melbourne
as the dominant male influence in Victoria's life. She was thoroughly
devoted to him, and completely submitted to his will. Victoria did nothing
without her husband's approval. Albert assisted in her royal duties.
He introduced a strict decorum in court and made a point of straitlaced
behavior. Albert also gave a more conservative tinge to Victoria’s
politics. If Victoria
was to insistently interject
her opinions and make her views felt in the cabinet, it was only because
of Albert’s teachings of hard work.
The general public, however,
was not enamored with the German prince; he was excluded from holding
any official political position, was never granted a title of peerage
and was named Prince Consort only after seventeen years of marriage..
His interests in art, science, and industry spurred him to organize
the Crystal Palace Exhibition in 1851, a highly profitable industrial
convention. He used the proceeds, some £186,000, to purchase lands
in Kensington for the establishment of several cultural and industrial
museums.
Reflecting back into her childhood,
Victoria was always prone to self pity. On Dec. 14th 1861 Albert died
from typhoid fever at Windsor Castle. Victoria remained in self-imposed
seclusion for ten years. This genuine, but obsessive mourning kept her
occupied for the rest of her life and played an important role in the
evolution of what would become the Victorian mentality.
Her popularity was at its
lowest by 1870, but it steadily increased thereafter until her death.
In 1876 she was crowned Empress of India by Disraeli. In 1887 Victoria’s
Golden Jubilee was a grand national celebration of her 50th year as
Queen. The Golden Jubilee brought her out of her shell, and she once
again embraced public life. She toured English possessions and even
visited France (the first English monarch to do so since the coronation
of Henry VI in 1431).
Victoria's long reign witnessed
an evolution in English politics and the expansion of the British Empire,
as well as political and social reforms on the continent. France had
known two dynasties and embraced Republicanism, Spain had seen three
monarchs and both Italy and Germany had united their separate principalities
into national coalitions. Even in her dotage, she maintained a youthful
energy and optimism that infected the English population as a whole.
The national pride connected
with the name of Victoria - the term Victorian England, for example,
stemmed from the Queen's ethics and personal tastes, which generally
reflected those of the middle class.
2.7 Nancy Astor, Viscountess
Astor
She was the first woman to
take a seat in the British House of Commons.
Nancy Astor was born in 1879
in Virginia, one of five sisters (and two brothers). One of her sisters
married the artist Charles Dana Gibson, who immortalized his wife as
the "Gibson girl."
Nancy Astor's father was a
Confederate officer. After the war he became a tobacco auctioneer. During
her early childhood, the family was poor and struggling; as she became
an adolescent, her father's success brought the family wealth. Her father
refused to send her to college, a fact that Nancy Astor resented.
In October 1897, Nancy Astor
married society Bostonian Robert Gould Shaw. They had one son before
they separated in 1902, divorcing in 1903.
Nancy Astor then went to England.
On a ship, she met Waldorf Astor, whose American millionaire father
had become a British lord. They married in London on April 19, 1906,
and Nancy Astor moved with Waldorf t the family home in Cliveden, where
she proved an adept and popular society hostess. In the course of their
marriage, they had four sons and one daughter. In 1914 the couple, who
also shared a birthdate, converted to Christian Science.
Waldorf and Nancy Astor became
involved in reform politics, part of a circle of reformers around Lloyd
George. In 1909 Waldorf stood for election to the House of Commons as
a Conservative from a Plymouth constituency; he lost the election but
won on his second try, in 1910. The family moved to Plymouth when he
won. Waldorf served in the House of Commons until 1919, when, at his
father's death, he became a Lord and thereby became a member of the
House of Lords.
Nancy Astor decided to run
for the seat that Waldorf vacated, and she was elected in 1919. Constance
Markiewicz had been elected to the House of Commons in 1918, but chose
not to take her seat. Nancy Astor was the first woman to take a seat
in Parliament -- the only woman MP until 1921.
Her campaign slogan was
"Vote for Lady Astor and your children will weigh more." She
worked for temperance, women's rights, and children's rights. Another
slogan she used was "If you want a party hack, don't elect me."
Nancy Astor was an opponent
of socialism and, later during the Cold War, an outspoken critic of
communism. She was also an anti-fascist. She refused to meet Hitler
though she had an opportunity. Waldorf met with him about the treatment
of Christian Scientists and came away convinced that Hitler was mad.
Despite their opposition to
fascism and the Nazis, the Astors supported economic appeasement of
Germany, supporting the lifting of economic sanctions against Hitler's
regime.
During World War II, Nancy
Astor was noted for her morale-boosting visits to her constituents,
especially during German bombing raids. She just missed being hit once,
herself. She also served, unofficially, as hostess to American troops
stationed at Plymouth during the build-up to the Normandy invasion.
In 1945, Nancy Astor left
Parliament, at her husband's urging, and not entirely happily. She continued
to be a witty and sharp critic of social and political trends when she
disapproved, including both communism and the American McCarthy witch-hunts.
She largely withdrew from
public life with the death of Waldorf Astor in 1952. She died in 1964.
In 1923, Nancy Astor published
“My Two Countries”, her own story.
2.8 Margaret Thatcher
Margaret Thatcher was born
Britain's first female prime minister. A graduate of Somerville College,
Oxford, with a master of arts degree from the University of Oxford she
worked as a
research chemist and a barrister,
concentrating on tax law, before being elected to the House of Commons
in 1953. She held several ministerial appointments including education
minister (1970-74). Elected leader of her Party (the Opposition) in
1975, she became prime minister in 1979. Known as a strong leader and
an "astute Parliamentary tactician, she knew how to handle disagreement,
no matter from which bench it issued.
In 1982 she ordered British
troops to the Falkland Islands to retake them from Argentina. She took
a strong stand against the trade unions during the miner's strike (1984-85),
and moved Britain toward privatization, selling minor interests in public
utilities to the business interests. She also introduced "rate
capping" which effectively took control of expenditures out of
the hands of city councils, part of her policies aimed at reducing the
influence of local governments. In 1989, she introduced a community
poll tax. In 1990, her cabinet was divided over issues including the
European Community which forced her resignation. In 1992, she entered
the House of Lords, created Baroness Thatcher of Kesteven. Her memoirs
are being published by HarperCollins. The first volume, "The Downing
Street Years" was published in 1993.
2.9 Diana, Princess of
Wales
Princess Diana was an iconic
figure of the late 20th Century. During her life she was often said
to be the most photographed person, appearing on the cover of People
magazine more than anyone else. She epitomised feminine beauty and glamour.
At the same time, she was admired for her groundbreaking charity work;
in particular her work with AIDS patient,s and supporting the campaign
for banning landmines. Married to Prince Charles in 1981, she received
the title of “Her Royal Highness Princess Diana of Wales” She is
the Mother of Prince William and Prince Harry 2nd and 3rd in line to
the throne respectively.
Diana was born to an aristocratic
family who links to the Royal Family. Her father was Edward Spencer,
Viscount Althorp. Edward Spencer was a direct descendent of Charles
II.. Her mother was Frances Viscountess Althorp. Her mother was distantly
related with the Queen Mother, and was also of American descent. When
Diana was young, her parents divorced with her father winning a bitter
battle for custody of the children. Diana grew up in the family home
of Park House, before moving to Althorp in 1975. Diana did not shine
as a student, but did well in music and ballet. When she met her future
husband, Diana was working as a part time assistant in a nursery school
in London
In 1981, Diana married Prince
Charles. Diana was 13 years the junior, at an age of just 20, Charles
by contrast was 33 at the time of the wedding. The general public soon
warmed to the innocence and beauty of Princess Diana, and the wedding
was watched by over 1 billion people world wide. During their marriage
they had two sons, Prince William and Prince Harry. However, in the
mid 1980s, strains started to appear in the marriage, and under much
publicity the marriage broke up leading to a divorce in 1992. During
this period Diana is said to have suffered various health problems such
as bulimia and depression.
As Princess of Wales, Diana
was expected to take part in various official engagements, such as,
opening of hospitals. This provided a natural outlet for her to become
involved in various types of charitable work. Her natural sympathy and
oneness with patients was much admired. In 1987, Princess Diana was
one of the first well known celebrities to be photographed with a victim
of AIDS. This was important in changing attitudes to the disease. At
the time, many thought the disease could be contacted by touch alone.
Another of her high profile charities, was her involvement in the campaign
to ban landmines. In January 1997, she visited mine fields in Angola
to inspect the clearing of landmines. After her death, the Ottawa treaty,
was signed banning the use of anti-personnel landmines. Many agree that
her support and role in the campaign played an important role in influencing
this decision.
Shortly before her death,
June 18th Princess Diana met with Mother Teresa. Both admired each other.
Mother Teresa always said “Diana is my daughter.” With utmost humility
Diana said “I am a very, very small Mother Teresa.
Despite the pervasive press
intrusions into her private life, Diana remained very popular because
people could identify with her. Her hands on approach to charity work
gave the impression of a new type of Royal, who was no longer so remote.
“Everyone needs to be
valued. Everyone has the potential to give something back if only they
had the chance.”
Diana died on 31st August,
1997, in a car crash involving Dodi Al-Fayed. (see last moments of Princess
Diana) It was said they were being chased by paparazzi at the time the
fatal accident. Although, the inquest noted that the driver was also
under the influence of drugs and drink. Controversy still surrounds
her death, with a further inquest still underway.(3) The death of Diana
had a profound impact on the British public and those in other countries.
It led to an unprecedented outpouring of grief and sympathy, for a person
people had taken into their hearts. Over 1 million bouquets of flowers
were laid at Buckingham Palace. Her funeral was watched by countless
millions around the world. Her final resting place was her family home
of Althorp.
Sri Chinmoy said of Princess
Diana:
“Princess Diana, your
heart of sympathy covers the length and breadth of the world. There
shall come a time when the entire world will value you most sincerely,
most lovingly and most wholeheartedly."
3. Conclusion
Fatal contradistinction between
man as “a master”, “a maker of destinies” to woman as a minor
creature “made of Adam’s rib” is the reason of the discharmony
of social structure. There was no equality between this to entities
in remote ages. Woman didn’t have independence. She was a slave performing
her family duties. One paradox should be mentioned here: the more woman
was worshipped at some space of time, the more humiliating and subordinate
position they really had.
As an instance,
we could refer to Middle Ages. Little is known about the life of women
of Britain in that period, but without doubt it was hard. The
Church tought that women shoukd obey their husbands. It also spread
two different ideas about women: that they should be pure and holy like
the Virgin Mary; and that,like Eve, they could not be trusted and were
a moral danger and a moral danger to men. Such religious teaching led
men both to worship and also to look down on women, and led women to
give in to men’s authority.
Marriage was usually
the single most important event in the lives of men and women. But the
decision itself was by the family, not the couple themselves. This was
because by marriage a couple themselves. This was because by marriage
a family could improve its wealth and social position. Everyone, both
rich and poor, married for mainly financial reasons. Once married, a
woman had to accept her husband as a master. A disobedient wife was
usually beaten. It is unlikely that love played much of a part in most
marriages.
The first duty
of every wife was to give her husband chidren, preferably sons. Because
so many children died as babies, and because there was little that could
be done if a birth was wrong, producing children was dangerous and exhausting.
Yet this was the future for every wife from twenty or younger until
she was forty.
The wife of a noble
had other responsibilities. When her lord was away, she was in charge
of the manor and the village lands, all the servants and villagers,
the harvest and the animals. She also had to defend the manor if it
was attacked. She was to run the household, welcome visitors, and store
enough food, including salted meat, for winter. She was expected to
have enough knowledge of herbs and plants to make suitable medicines
those in the village who were sick. She probably visited the poor and
the sick in the village, showing that the rules “cared” for them.
She had little time her own children, who in any case were often sent
away at the age of eight to another manor, “the boys to be made into
men”.
Most women, of
course, were peasants,busy making food, making cloth and making clothes
from the cloth. They worked in the fields, looked after their children,
after animals.
A woman’s position
improved if her husband died. She could get control of the money
her family had given the husband at the time of marriage, usually about
one-third of his total land and wealth. But might have to marry again:
men wanted her land, and it was was difficult to look after it without
the help of a man.
However in Britain
since long ago there’ve been women who managed to change the march
of history, those who were not afraid to struggle for their rights,
struggle against prejudices. And we would like to tell you about the
most outstanding women of Great Britain whose names have
become inprescriptible part of its history.
4. Literature
1) Whyte, Ellen Maria. "Mary
Queen of Scots." (16 March 1998)
2) Emery Walker, "Historical
Portraits" (1909)
3) http://www.biographyonline.net/
4) http://en.wikipedia.org
5) http://historymedren.about.com/
6) http://www.britannia.com/
APPENDIX
Photos
Anne Boleyn