Лекции по "Политологии"

As the main competing agents of socialisation the state and a society differently influencing character of socialisation appear. The state is guided first of all by distribution among citizens of samples of conformist behaviour while the society is interested in education of the critical relation of citizens to the state, it интенциям and to possibilities to subordinate to itself of people. Competitive character of mastering of various values and standards of political life predetermines formation of various types of political socialisation of the person:

- The harmonious type prevails in the Anglo-Saxon countries and reflects normal c the points of view of psychology interaction of the person and power institutes, the rational and valid relation of the individual to the law and order, the state, comprehension of the civil duties by it. Dialogue of the individual and the power occurs in the conditions of mature democratic traditions when both the power, and the individual are attached to the standard ideals, norms and values;

- гегемонистский the type is presented by the person negatively concerning all social and political norms, except what dominate in "the" group. Such model of socialisation assumes inclusion in a policy of new generations exclusively on the basis of values of any class, religion, political ideology;

- The pluralistic type prevails in the Western Europe, it conducts to formation of the person which recognises competency of others to be guided by ideas preferable to them and freedom, to keep ability to change the political predilections and to master new valuable reference points.

- The disputed type is peculiar first of all to underdeveloped countries where poverty of the majority of the population, variety of clan, breeding, patrimonial values complicate consent achievement between the power and carriers of different values, assumes formation of the person seeing the purpose of the political participation in loyalty to the group and support of its struggle against political opponents.

III. For the person two stages of its political socialisation are characteristic: primary and secondary. Primary political socialisation begins from 3-5 years and forms at the person the is selective-individual relation to the phenomena of political life. D.Iston and I.Denis distinguish four aspects of primary political socialisation:

- Direct perception the child of political life. It scoops the information on it in estimations of parents, in their political reactions and feelings;

- Policy "personification" in which course the cognizance of those or others belonging to sphere of the power of figures becomes for it синомимом contacts to political system;

- "Idealisation" of these political images, that is formation on their basis of steady emotional relations to a policy;

- “институционализация” the properties found in the course of socialisation, testifying to complication of a political picture of the world of the child and its transition to independent vision of a policy.

As a whole feature of a primary stage of political socialisation consists that the person should adapt for political system, yet without understanding their essence and value. Therefore it is the extremely important, that at the given stage any political information was inseparably linked with authority of seniors, parents and-or teachers and at all did not contain rigidly идеологизированных images and concepts.

Secondary political socialisation characterises such stage of activity of the person when it, having mastered receptions of processing of the information and realisation of those or other roles, is capable to resist to group pressure and in an individual order to reconsider ideological positions. The leading role is played here by the return socialisation reflecting influence of the person on selection and mastering of knowledge, norms, receptions of interaction with the power. As a whole it is necessary to recognise that the person is not capable to generate independently all conditions of the political participation and consequently as has noticed Fridrih a background Hayek (1899-1988), it adapts even to those changes and the aspects of life which sense does not understand.

The mechanism of political socialisation functions at three levels. The first of them - social. Politicisation of people is carried out under the pressure of problems which all society faces. The second level - socially-psychological. The person is politically socialised not only as a part of the big groups (a family, a class, student's group, labour collective), but also as a result of interpersonal dialogue thanks to which in many respects and there is its political self-identification. The third level - intrapersonal on which political socialisation corresponds with individual interests of the person, its requirements, motives, installations and the valuable orientations playing defining role in formation of political consciousness of the person.

IV. Features of political socialisation in modern Russia are caused by change of political and economic systems of a society that has created serious problems of program of political experience, preservation of continuity of political institutes, norms and values. At set of occurring ideologies in the country there was special type of an ideological vacuum. The impoverishment of a considerable part of the population, legality and law and order easing, criminality growth, an arbitrariness and corruption of officials substantially undermine trust of citizens to existing political institutes and leaders. The family as social institute also has hard times. Among representatives of an average and the senior of generations former tsennostno-political orientations, stereotypes of political thinking and behaviour prevail that inevitably conflicts to many aspirations and installations of rising generation which faster, adapts for new sociopolitical conditions better and more full.

At the same time problem there are the socialisation much of agents, the leading parts playing these process. It is a question of the school which influence in many cases not only differs from house education, but also will neutralise, weakens it. The socialising role of army for young men of military age has decreased, many of which use the best efforts not to get on military service. Multinational character of the Russian Federation puts a thorny question about necessity education tolerant and солидаристского international dialogue in the country. The question on participation of mass-media, churches, schools, establishments of higher education, state structures and the organisations in ресоциализации Russians is actual also. This process “assumes not simply development of new social niches, and переучивание to that has been strongly acquired in the childhood and a youth and that made the base of the given person” (E.Shestopal).

V. Political socialisation is one of the major factors of definition of political behaviour - essential making life of each person. The political behaviour is any form of actions of the person, beginning from active participation in the politician and finishing unwillingness about it neither to think, nor to speak. In the political behaviour the person can realise, at least, three possibilities: first, political behaviour it expresses and protects the interests; secondly, he can protest against this or that political system which does not suit it; thirdly, its political behaviour can be directed on protection of an existing system, the party. He differently participates in the politician. There are following forms of this participation:

Reaction to the events occurring in political life which is based on an estimation by the person of political situations that is the elementary form of political behaviour;

Participation in elections in representative bodies of the power demands from the person of display of conscious political activity;

Participation in referenda and плебисцитах is connected with direct acceptance of political decisions when the person also is compelled to show the belief and a political position;

Participation in meetings, demonstrations, propaganda actions, pickets, boycotts, campaigns of civil disobedience as forms of direct action of the person on protection of the interests or in favour of the certain political decision;

Membership in parties and movements is a form of the political behaviour, allowing such person to consider “as the politician in combination” (M.Veber);

Professional political activity is an activity in state structures, in supervising party structures. In that case it is possible to speak not about political behaviour, and about a certain way of life where the policy takes the main place.

Question of principle of the characteristic of political behaviour, according to the majority of political scientists and lawyers, the problem of an admissibility of political violence is. Max Veber considered the state as “the relation of domination of people over the people, leaning against legitimate violence as means. So that it (state) existed, the people who are under domination, should submit to authority for which those who dominates now” apply. As the subject of political violence the nations, classes, social strata and the groups possessing certain political force can act.

All people to express the interests by means of political behaviour, should have at least the most general representations about the political world and mechanisms of its functioning. It is necessary for one reason: the policy world in this or that form mentions each citizen and a society as a whole. In 430 year B.C. Ancient Greek statesman Perikl (490-429 BC) noticed that “to judge it (politician) should be able all”.

 

 

 

 

 

POLITICAL ELITE

 

Set of people, each of which has received the appreciation in the area, we name elite.

Vilfredo Pareto

 

I. One of basic in political science of concepts "elite" etymologically occurs from Latin “eligere” to (select) or French “elite” (the best, perfect, selected). In a political science it is used in neutral value, reflects possession representatives of elite as much as possible expressed, the highest in a politiko-administrative scale of measurements by lines. Independent элитистские concepts have arisen only in the end of XIX century. Adherents элитизма proved and continue to give reason for the positions that the history does not know exceptions and consequently the power of minority over the majority is eternal. In their opinion, existence of elite is caused by action of following factors:

- A psychological and social inequality of people, their unequal abilities, possibilities and desire to participate in the politician;

- Objective law of public division of labour which demands professional work management as a condition of its efficiency;

- The high public importance of administrative work and its corresponding stimulation;

- Ample opportunities of use of the administrative activity directly connected with distribution of socially significant resources, for any reception of social privileges;

- Practical impossibility of realisation of universal control of activity of political leaders;

- Political passivity of broad masses of the citizens which main vital interests usually lie out of policy sphere.

Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923) in the basic works “Social systems (1902)” and “the Treatise of the general sociology” (1916) has formulated the concept according to which the society appears in the form of a pyramid balance and dynamics in which is determined by ruling minority standing at its top - elite. Elite is that best that is created in society bowels, they arise from its lower class, during struggle rise in the higher circles, blossom there, and subsequently degenerate and disappear. It on change so-called counterelite which take place the same phases of development and decline come, and then too are replaced by new elite. Thus similar change, as a rule, marks itself alternation in power different types of elite, in particular, "foxes" (resourceful, artful and unscrupulous) and "lions" (possessing feeling of fidelity to the state, conservative-minded and not afraid to apply force), using various management methods and властвования. The main quality both that, and others this scientist considered ability to apply force there both when and where it was necessary. Кругооборот, circulation, change of elite and counterelite of Pareto named “the universal law of history”.

Formulating the concept, Pareto recognised that the major case of allocation of elite groups is certain psychological tendencies belonging to its representatives, personal qualities which distinguish them from other weight of the population. Thus, it has conceptually issued Platon's numerous ideas, Fridriha Nitsshe (1844-1900), T.Karlejlja and other thinkers who specified in presence of the certain human qualities expressing an inequality of people both dividing higher and the lower class. The Italian scientist has divided elite on correcting and not correcting, considered revolution only as struggle for change of those or other elite groups in power. Potential elite, masking under “people voice”, wrote Pareto, induces weights to discontent with ruling elite, uses the people as herd of rams with which help it punches a hole in the shabby fence protecting the Olympus of former elite, and makes the way, thus, to power tops. Then the new elite exhausts this national herd in same "stalls" of a public order.

As the founder of other, functional direction in a science about elite, consider one more great Italian sociologist and the political scientist - Gaetano Moska (1858-1941) who in works “the Theory of management and parliamentary board” (1884) and “Elements of a political science” (1896) considered elite as group of the managing directors who are carrying out certain social duties. However, instead of concept "elite" it operated with a category "ruling class" is more often. The Italian researcher underlined thus that along with the properties distinguishing representatives of "ruling class" others (riches, military valour, an origin or possession of a management skill), the main reason of its imperious power was high degree of internal organisation and unity. This property also allows elite to concentrate a management of a society and the state in the hands. According to Moski, the elite main task as special political class consisted in strengthening of the domination, and it is even not so much de jure, how many de facto.

This scientist has given steadfast attention also to processes of change of structure and continuity in ruling class development. In particular, having allocated in it democratic and aristocratic tendencies, he underlined that prevalence of last group of managing directors expressing aspiration anyhow to become hereditary and constant, conducts to “to closing and crystallisation”, and then to elite degeneration.

German scientist Robert Mihels (1876-1936) developed about the same approaches to the social mechanisms which are giving rise in a society of elite, as Moska. It especially allocated the organising abilities ennobling an administrative layer and transforming it in political elite, has formulated a conclusion according to which the organisation of a society demands an elitism and naturally reproduces it. This conclusion has received popularity as “the iron law of oligarchy” which essence consists that democracy for self-preservation and stability achievement is compelled to create the organisation, and it is connected with elite creation - active minority to which should trust in weights because of impossibility of their direct control over this organisation. Democracy in that case inevitably turns to oligarchy as the one who says a word "organisation", that simultaneously speaks also a word "oligarchy". According to Mihelsa, national leaders, having broken in political elite, change the social status and concentrate forces on protection own, already elite interests.

II. Now элитология proceeds them that the political elite is the big social group which is possessing high enough level of political influence and being the basic source of the managerial personnel for institutes of the power of this or that state or a society. In a political science criteria are developed and the parametres are defined, allowing to differentiate and estimate various elite theories, allocating among them:

- Concepts макиавеллистской schools which unite ideas of special qualities of elite, its group unity, a recognition of an elitism of any society naturally following from natural human nature;

- Valuable theories (José Ortega-and-Gasset [1883-1955], etc.), trying to combine an elitism with democracy;

- Theories democratic элитизма which supporters approach to democracy as to a competition on elections of various elite groups for trust of voters (Sejmur Lipset [a sort. 1922], Charles Manhejm [1893-1947], Giovanni Sartori [a sort. 1924]);

- Concepts of pluralism of elite (Rajmon Aron, Robert Dal, etc.), start with treatment of political elite as elite functional;

- леволиберальные concepts of elite which are some kind of an ideological antipode pluralistic элитизма (Ralf Miliband, 1923-1994, etc.);

III. The Political elite is the group of persons which is professionally engaged in activity in sphere of the power and government (parties, other political institutes). It makes only certain part of wider elite social classes as a whole. To the basic functions and the problems of political elite opening its central role in management by a society and the state, concern: acceptance and control of realisation of decisions; formation and репрезентация group interests; продуцирование political values; ability to a manipulation public opinion.

The structure of elite of the modern states is rather difficult. Known categories of elite and counterelite are already insufficient for the characteristic of work of mechanisms of state machinery. The Polish scientific V.Milanovsky has suggested to consider structure of elite circles depending on performance by their internal groupings of original functions in sphere of political management. As he considers, special value has “селекторат”, including those persons who are potentially ready to performance of professional functions in political sphere. In “селекторат” those who influences promotion of representatives of the population, and those who prepares for execution of these roles enter also. As following elite formation “potential elite”, the representing isolated elite groupings just aspiring to the power, preparing for elections act. Those from them which have lost elections, but remained in the public policy, make “amateur elite”. Authoritative representatives in a society of these circles can influence decisions made in the state only indirectly. In the same segment two basic elite formations - opposition and supporters of the governmental forces settle down also.

The elite which has won elections gets the status of "ruling political elite”. It consists of representatives central, regional and local authorities. A special structural element of political elite is “elite in the politician”. They represent versions of not selected elite which consist of the most authoritative representatives of the technical and humanitarian intelligency, visible writers, scientific, sportsmen, managers of the show business, capable to help not win elections to those or other parties but also to support their political requirements in the conditions of crises or a routine current of political processes. But the most powerful and simultaneously mysterious elite grouping is “the connected group” which represents informal anonymous community of politicians which influence made decisions, but not necessarily possessing the formal status in power system.

IV. The Great influence on social imposing appearance, qualitative structure, professional competence and productivity of elite as a whole is rendered by systems of its selection or as it is often qualified in the politological literature, рекрутирования. Two are Most known and extended from them - гильдийная and entrepreneur systems. In the pure state they meet seldom enough, both have the pluses and minuses.

For system of guilds following peculiar features are characteristic:

Closeness, selection of applicants for higher posts mainly from subordinate layers of the elite;

Slow, gradual way upward;

Presence of numerous formal requirements for post employment - party membership, age, the work experience, formation, the management recommendation, etc.;

The small, rather closed circle селектората into which members of a higher body or the one first head enter only;

Selection and appointment of shots as narrow circle of heads, absence of an open competition;

Entrepreneur the system рекрутирования elite is in many respects opposite to system of guilds. It distinguish:

- The openness, ample opportunities for representatives of any public groups to apply for employment of in the lead positions;

- A small number of formal requirements, institutional filters;

- A wide range селектората which can include almost all voters of the country;

- High competition of selection, a rivalry sharpness for employment of supervising posts;

- Variability of structure of elite, the paramount importance for this purpose personal qualities, ability to find support of wide audience.

V. Political elite in Russia. Till 1917 the political elite of the country was formed by the soslovno-bureaucratic principle supposing possibility of existence of counterelite, in days of the Soviet power - on bessoslovno-nomenclature, excluding even hypothetical possibility of occurrence of any opposition. The essence of nomenclature system consisted in appointment of persons to a little socially significant supervising posts only under the recommendation of corresponding party bodies of the CPSU, in elite selection from above.

Since 1990, before aspiring to imperious heights of Russia people all set of the means which were available for this purpose as in the countries of the West, and the East has opened. Into political elite began to enter probably as through “a nomenclature door” executive power, and through parliament, leaning against support of parties. The nomenclature past became one of characteristic features of postcommunist Russian elite. Its low business and moral qualities in many respects explain permanence and depth of crisis of the Russian society last decade, mass distribution of corruption and irresponsibility. The present Russian political elite did not become essentially new politiko-cultural phenomenon, in a management there were basically shots which have begun the political way to Soviet period and were put forward on a little significant posts in days of reorganisation that has allowed a kernel of nomenclature elite to keep the positions and in a new Russian society.

At the same time in 90th years “the new elite” which was represented by the young, vigorous leaders who were actively engaged in business has started to be formed so-called. They express today interests not only quickly enriched groups of the financial, trading capital, but also criminal structures. Some of them have gone to a policy, others remained in business, actively enjoying in the activity by support of politiko-administrative structures and bodies. An important tendency of political processes in Russia is promotion in republics, regions of an influential layer этнократии (intellectual, political, cultural leaders, carriers of local or national consciousness), become by an important, leading part of regional political elite. It is necessary to notice also that with change of political system sources элитообразовательного process (the power, the property, money, force) have concentrated in hands of executive powers - the president, its administration, the government. It has allowed them to supervise and direct processes of formation of elite. Now the political elite of Russia turns to the closed formation more and more: spontaneous рекрутирование it is in essence complete, selection on supervising posts reminds lines of the nomenclature approach more and more.