British literature

True to its pre-election promises, the Labour Government introduced a system of social security and created the so-called "welfare state" with security allegedly guaranteed to the workers in nationalized industries. However, the "welfare state" proved to be a deception. The social benefits granted by the new administration were largely nullified by a steady increase of indirect taxation. The hopes of the people were also gradually killed as the government gave priority to the payment of lavish compensations to ex-factory owners, leaving the workers' demands for higher wages unnoticed. The prices went on rising, unemployment reemerged, all this breeding countrywide discontent and the realization that capitalism continued to exploit the working man just as much as ever. Disappointment with the Labour government was prevalent.

The deep questioning of social changes and ideas, the prevailing concern with new dilemmas was best expressed in post-war literature. The novel continued to be the dominant genre and many writers were engaged in an attempt to depict the post-war world in realistic colors. Among those attempts Jack Lindsay's series of Novels of the British Way, starting with Betrayed Spring in 1953, deserves notice.

The works of his younger fellow-writer James Aldridge are wider in scope and design. In his novels and short stories problems of war and peace, of national movements and international relationships are treated with remarkable honesty and courage.

After the war there was a significant movement away from the avant-garde, from the technical experimentation favored by earlier generations of writers. The writers' interest in man's external relationships led to a less associative style, to a style closer to the straightforward narrative of the greater part of nineteenth-century fiction. They often deliberately tried to reestablish conventional prose techniques, old novelistic traditions. Several major writers like С. Р. Snow and Graham Greene came to the fore in the inter-war period, but their specific manner outlined itself most markedly in their post-war work.

C. P. Snow viewed all social problems in large political terms. He invariably expressed his social convictions and attitudes in reference to political power. Throughout his sequence Strangers and Brothers (which forms an impressive study of both great public issues and man's peisonal problems), Snow continually illustrated some form of conflict between individual conscience and the pressure of the political situation. His books provide a valuable commentary on the life of contemporary British society.

Like C. P. Snow, G. Greene never confines himself to a narrow world. His concern is the world at large, the international scene, and his attitude is one of compassionate interest in man's predicaments, in the individual's responsibility for the suffering of mankind. This induced him to traverse the European, African and American continents, and as his vision widened his mind reverted again and again to the unjustifiable suffering of man and to its social and political causes. He is a writer with a sense of history, a moral message and uncompromising critical attitude to the sordid cruelty of imperialism. Accordingly, The Heart of the Matter is set in West Africa and The Quiet American is played out against the background of war in Vietnam; it is likewise in character that the action of A Burnt-Out Case takes place in the Congo, and The Comedians disclose the truth about the tyranny in Haiti.

Humanistic traditions of English literature have also been taken up by Angus Wilson who appeared on the literary scene immediately after the war. With mingled irony and compassion he gives, both in his short stories and novels, a skilful dissection of post-war England exposing the foibles and hypocrisies of the middle-class milieu, its self-righteous and hollow conventions, the mean devices with which people seek to mask their deep-rooted brutal egotism. In his major novel Anglo-Saxon Attitudes he uses the large framework of the traditional nineteenth-century novel, the saga that portrays a society by cutting across numerous class and occupational lines, by raising profound questions of moral honesty.

In the mid-fifties, post-war disillusionment, divergence between hopes and reality determined the character of fiction created by a group of writers who came collectively to be known as the "Angry Young Men". Among them were Kingsley Amis, John Wain, John Braine, John Osborne and Colin Wilson. It is important to note that they did not belong to a clearly defined movement. Far from it: they attacked one another in the press and some were even reluctant to appear between the same covers with others whose views they violently opposed. But they had one thing in common — an attitude of nonconformity to the established social order. Through their characters these writers were eager to express their anger with society, an anger modified by the fact that it was expressed from the point of view of men who were themselves products of the "welfare state".

The protagonists of Amis's Lucky Jim, Wain's Hurry On Down, Braine's Room at the Top, Colin Wilson's The Outsiders and of Os borne's play Look Back in Anger,-no matter how different they are, represent the frustrated young generation who defy everybody in authority. They do not seem to fit in; they refuse to put up with society's conventions', their statements express both political scepticism "and disgust with personal insecurity. Their anger originates in their inability to communicate with others as fully and meaningfully as they would like to; all of them are intelligent young men from the lower or lower-middle classes educated at provincial universities but let loose in a society dominated more than ever by ruthless class distinctions.

An important development of the fifties and early sixties, having a direct connection with the outburst of the "angries", was the emergence of a working-class novel. In their vigorous fiction Allan Silli-toe, Sid Chaplin, Stan Barstow and David Storey provide the lower-class perspective of the post-war situation. The defiance of authority, the attitude of resentment, a working man's constant struggle in a hostile world — all this gives their characters a certain unity of fellow feeling directed against the forces exploiting their physical and spiritual powers. Allan Sillitoe, who sets his novels against the lowest depths of England's grimy industrial cities, makes his reader realize that his young heroes are unable to fulfil themselves within the prison of a class-bound system.

Among the English writers who are intensely committed to a sense of social responsibility and to a warm sympathy with those oppressed by society is Doris Lessing. Her interest in political battles permeates most of her novels and short stories. The series of novels that deal with colonial Africa and a girl's growing-up (Martha Quest, A Proper Marriage, A Ripple in the Storm, Landlocked, The Four-Gated City) demonstrates a heroine who is anxious to change society, to work actively for a more humane and just world- When Doris Lessing moved to England in 1979 her sense of responsibility and compassion for those who are socially rejected led her to search for her values and for her literary material among the working class in London (The Other Woman, In Persuit of the English). In a series of essays entitled Going Home she frequently advocates direct participation in political action.

A great deal of contemporary English fiction and drama is dedicated to the subject of man's search for identity, and the stress is not so much on political or social issues as on moral problems, which adds another dimension to the portrayal of modern English society. The problem of identity closely linked with one of the most influential philosophical trends of twentieth century thought, often evokes an existential attitude. It implies a certain scepticism about ever knowing the essential nature of any of man's various experiences, particularly when that experience is received only through individual consciousness. At the same time, man must live and make his choice, must come to some terms with his own existence and the true meaning of everything around him. Existentialist philosophy places limitations on man's knowledge and power and even on his search for identity and on the necessity for serious action or engagement.

The influence of existentialist ideas left a profound impression on the work of Iris Murdoch. She has created a series of intricate novels that essentially deal with the nature of man and his delusions. Her characters search for an understanding of the meaning of life; they try to reduce experience to the manageable and comprehensible, but none of the identities or definitions provide any satisfactory solution. Though Iris Murdoch always attempts to shape her characters perception of the world's chaotic nature into significant form, her rich and highly artistic prose mocks man's efforts to formulate precise codes and laws about life.

With Iris Murdoch the trend in creative writing moved to philosophical fiction. William Golding's novels and especially his most assured success Lord of the Flies are notable for their symbolic treatment of human nature. In part they constitute a pessimistic commentary on the corrupt world, based on the author's belief in the falsity of the existing morals. Golding has covered several vastly different themes, not always consonant with each other, but all expressive of his concern about the influence of modern civilization. In The Inheritors he makes the whole civilized enterprise look like a betrayal of man's chance to exist; in The Spire he suggests that any great task imposed upon a community makes such heavy demands on men that they break under the strain; The Pyramid is a forcible appeal to kindness, mutual understanding and humanity as the only way to save the world from heartless selfishness and calculated greed.

Preoccupation with a philosophical explanation of the nature of things is manifest in the work of John Fowles, a highly imaginative and innovative modern writer. Fowles probes deep intoTniman relations, especially those between the opposite sexes, by manipulating numerous literary, historical and artistic allusions and devices to demonstrate which part of the life of his characters belongs to the past, the present and to all times. His point of departure is invariably man's lack of knowledge about human nature; his male is always limited by his partial understanding of woman; and in his frustration, his necessity to operate in a world where his knowledge is only partial, he acts so as to capture (The Collector), desert (The Magus) or betray (The French Lieutenant's Woman) the female he can only dimly comprehend. Fowles treats his constant theme with deep insight as well as with great intensity of sociological and psychological observation.

The complex relations between modern men and women find their way also into Margaret Drabble's fiction, who writes from a feminine viewpoint. She deliberately presents her themes within the framework of a conventional novel; she likes what she calls "a good traditional tale". Margaret Drabble writes about young women who are not merely attractive, intelligent and educated, but also sharply observant. Her heroines are all mothers, and their involvement with their children cuts sharply across their concern with a career and their desire for emotional freedom. During their painful searchings and struggle they reveal the contradictory psychological make-up that Margaret Drabble thinks is characteristic of modern British women.

On one occasion, however, Margaret Drabble went beyond the description of woman's intimate emotions and her troubles in a hostile male world. In The Ice Age she gives a convincing description of Britain in the throes of an economic and cultural crisis, in the grip of the ice age. This links her work with a series of books, all written in the 1970s, whose obvious purpose is not merely to go in for minute psychological analysis of personal emotions, but to comprehend the nature of the world at large. These books comprise John Fowles's Daniel Martin with its earnest craving for an overall view of contemporary reality on a fairly international scale, Paul Scott's Staying On with its perceptive probing into Britain's political problems as they affect the lives of individuals, Melvin Bragg's The Autumn Manoeuvres with its satirical delineation of present-day English political life, David Storey's study of the life of Colin Saville (Saville) against a vast social background, Malcolm Bradbury's Man of History, dealing with English university life and the problem of new intellectuals springing up from the working class.

However deeply Britain is affected by the present crisis, English literature, though influenced by some of its aspects, remains an active and living force. There is some reason to think that it is now in the process of assimilating a vaster body of social experience than it did in the previous decades. This is not to say that novels involving highly individual psychological subtleties are passing out of fashion. They are no less numerous than before. Nor does it mean that British literature is chiefly orientated to serious social studies. The role of light fiction, and particularly detective fiction, still remains prevalent. The scope of the latter varies very widely ranging from stories where the technique of detection becomes the vehicle of social and moral criticism (as in C. P. Snow's A Coat of Varnish) to absolutely unartistic and shoddy creations imitating the notorious James Bond series by the late Ian Fleming.

The middle level of detective stories has been reached by successful and gifted novelists like Agatha Christie, Dorothy Sayers, Ngaio Marsh, Margery Allingham, Cyril Hare, John Le Carre and others. These authors are masters of a craft not devoid of psychological and artistic interest. Within the limits of the genre their fiction, apart from entertainment value, offers a commentary upon human nature and insight into the century's social changes.

English literature is passing through a period of transition and any forecasts concerning its further development would be arbitrary. One thing seems certain, however — the best works of contemporary prose and poetry are being put at the service of the momentous issues of today and bear relevance to the needs and aspirations of humanity.

In the work which has appeared since the end of the Second "World War, it is just possible to identify two main attitudes. The first is the preoccupation of many writers with themselves and their private experiences. The second is the concern of some writers with society, its influences, its faults and (sometimes) its reform. In the work of a number of writers, traces of both attitudes are present. The tendency of the age is to cater for the masses. Writers are as much members of the mass as anyone else, but they are more worried than many other people by tlieir lack of active participation. Their private sensations therefore become more important to them, and it is these which they try to pin down and shape in their writings. Many try to see themselves in relation to the society in which they live. Often the more sensitive of these try to make an objective record of their situation, while definite social criticism comes from those who would press more actively for reform. Yet, in the ninetccn-fifties at least, these active elements lacked a positive direction; they were eager and biting in their criticism, but silent when it came to the question of what they really wanted. Utopian plans for the reform of society seemed little more than empty talk and self-delusion.

In literature today, man is written with a small 'm'. He is no longer seen as a great abstraction for whom plans may be made, but as a person capable of suffering. In the products of both attitudes, the awareness of suffering is notable.

 

2. British literature in XI century

Philip Pullman is best known for the fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials, that comprises of Northern Lights 1995, The Subtle Knife 1997, and The Amber Spyglass 2000. It is a coming-of-age story with many epic events. Neil Gaiman is an esteemed writer of science fiction, fantasy short stories and novels, whose notable works include Stardust 1998, Coraline 2002, The Graveyard Book 2009, and The Sandman series. Alan Moore's works include Watchmen, V for Vendetta set in a dystopian future UK, The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, and From Hell, speculating on the identity and motives of Jack the Ripper.

Ian McEwan's Atonement 2001, refers to the process of forgiving or pardoning a transgression, and alludes to the main characters' search for atonement in interwar England. His 2005 novel Saturday, follows an especially eventful day in the life of a successful neurosurgeon.

Zadie Smith's Whitbread Book Award winning novel White Teeth 2000, mixes pathos and humour, and focuses on the later lives of two wartime friends in London. The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time 2003 by Mark Haddon, is written in the first-person perspective of a 15-year-old boy with autism living in Wiltshire. The first novel from Susanna Clarke is the historical fantasy Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell 2004. Works of the 2007 Nobel Prize recipient Doris Lessing include, The Grass is Singing, and The Golden Notebook. J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter fantasy series, is a collection of seven fantasy novels that chronicle the adventures of the adolescent wizard Harry Potter, the idea for which Rowling conceived whilst she was on a train trip from Manchester to London in 1990. The series begins with Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone 1997, and ends with the seventh and final book Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows 2007.

In the 1950s, the bleak absurdist play Waiting for Godot, by the Irish playwright Samuel Beckett profoundly affected British drama. The Theatre of the Absurd influenced playwrights of the later decades of the 20th century, including Harold Pinter, whose works are often characterized by menace or claustrophobia, and Tom Stoppard. Stoppard's works are however also notable for their high-spirited wit and the great range of intellectual issues which he tackles in different plays. Michael Frayn is among other playwrights noted for their use of language and ideas.

Formerly an appointment for life, the appointment of the Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom is now made for a fixed term of 10 years, starting with Andrew Motion in 1999 as successor to Ted Hughes. Carol Ann Duffy succeeded Motion in the post in May 2009. A position of national laureate, entitled The Scots Makar, was established in 2004 by the Scottish Parliament. The first appointment was made directly by the Parliament in that year when Edwin Morgan received the honor The post of National Poet of Wales (Welsh: Bardd Cenedlaethol Cymru) was established in May 2005. The post is an annual appointment with the language of the poet alternating between English and Welsh.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2. Main genres of modern literature

 

1. Poetry and Drama

Poetry has remained principally a private thing. The poems of George Barker (1913- ) illustrate this exactly. Society does not concern him. His impressions of the outside world have no coherence outside his own awareness. 'I looked into my heart to write,' he begins one of his poems, and the line offers us a key to his work as a whole. Essentially personal, his whole thought comes from his heart; there is nothing intellectual about either his meaning or the images he chooses for its expression. His best poems are emotions, not recollected in tranquility, but urgently present. He can create a moment of sudden anguish, as in his sonnets on the two young men drowned in the Pacific, in which the seagulls and the sea are not merely pictorial setting but essential parts of his tragic awareness. There is an atmosphere of tragedy in his work which in many of his longer poems declines into a tendency to make big abstract statements. Where he compresses himself into a tighter form, the sudden throb of life is present.

Poets searching into human awareness have tried to link up with the origins of the race and its primal urges; so there has been much probing into the meaning of the major human experiences of birth, death, love, and the working of the soil. Robert Graves (1895- ) explores in mythology the oldest expression of the facts of the human situation. Jack R. Clemo (1916- ) shows us man as a creature in nature and under God. Drawing much of his imagery from the claypits, he offers a vision of man working the earth and receiving his strength from it while aware of his small-ncss in the face of the majesty and terror of God. The earth is physically present in Clemo's poems, and men are shown with 'the wind on their faces', 'the cold rain stings them', they 'creep down in rain-grooves' to wait 'till lightnings, thunder-rasps have died'.

With Dylan Thomas (1914-53) nature is more of a symbol, for he often relates its various aspects to facets of human existence and uses them as images to make his meaning clearer. There is joy, fear and wonderment in his view of life as a continuous process of which birth and death are but two incidents in nature's cycle. To die is but to 'enter again the round'. Youth is when 'Time held me green and dying', not a fixed point but part of the cycle. In his earlier poems the metaphors follow so closely one after the other that they often tend to obscure rather than enlighten. As he grew older, this fault disappeared, and he became more sparing of bis imagery. Moreover his readers were now accustomed to his way of thought and to his consciousness of the embryo in the fully-grown being, a complex relationship expressed in the poem which begins 'This bread I break was once the oat'. He explored afresh the image of the human condition as it is found in the Christian ritual; for his poetry is essentially religious as it searches for meaning and shape in the fact of existence.

Dylan Thomas's verse has a concentrated power which distinguishes it from the quieter output of other contemporary poets. Many, such as Robert Conquest (1917- ), are descriptive rather than intensive. Others work a harder road and find their expression through an intellectual imagery, yet their communication lacks urgency. One turns with relief to the translations from Chinese poetry made by Arthur Waley (1889- ), whose versions are so sensitive that he achieves his own recognition as a poet through them.

Only a scattering of poems contain direct social criticism, and those of Christopher Logue (1926- ) have the most impact. Although such poems arc for political reasons in a clear style so that their meaning can be grasped immediately, this characteristic is not confined to them. Many poets are turning away from metrical freedom in favor of a stricter technique, and the ballad form is becoming popular for both social and personal poetry

The theatre, as the most social of the arts, might have been expected to lead the way in taking a critical view of society. This has not proved to be the case, however, for our theatres have preferred to follow rather than mould public opinion. Few dramatists have attempted anything more than light entertainment.

Immediately after the war there was an attempt to revive the use of verse in play writing, for it was claimed that only in this way could language be sufficiently heightened to suit the great dramatic moments of the theatre. Thomas Stearns Eliot (1888- ) had already made a reputation before the war with his Murder in the. Cathedral (1935) and had attempted to meet the theatre in its own style in the unsuccessful The Family Reunion (1939). In 1950 he produced The Cocktail Party. This is a drawing-room comedy whose characters are subjected in the second act to attentions of a psychiatrist who helps them by means of some mystical hocus-pocus to accept the pettiness of their lives as an inevitable fact with which they must come to terms. He followed this with The Confidential Clerk (1954) and The Elder Statesman (1959). He has tried to suit his verse to the rhythms of ordinary speech, aiming to make the audience 'forget that they are listening to a poetic play'. The result sounds in the theatre like rather verbose prose.

The opposite technique is used by Christopher Fry (1907- ) whose verse overflows with poeticisms. In a rush of words and images, Fry explores the language in search of a valid rhetoric. This exuberance of language has been particularly well-received in his comedies A Phoenix Too Frequent (1946), The Lady's Not For Burning (1949) and Venus Observed (1950), where it enables him to achieve a greater profundity of vision. Often he seeks to convey his meaning through a series of images, as though rejecting each one in turn as unsatisfactory; so that one is left in the end aware of the meaning itself more than of the often rather worn images through which it has been expressed. Moreover he has a considerably stronger sense of the stage than T. S. Eliot. He is not primarily a poet, but a dramatist who has chosen to cast his language in verse. For all its exuberant and rather florid style, his verse has proved the most acceptable in the theatre in this century, because it has the immediacy which is a mark of the beet dramatic dialogue.