Шпаргалка по "Зарубежной литературе" (на английском языке)

    1. The enlightenment was essentially a set of attitudes and a view of the world which became widespread and very influential. The Enlightenment period in European history covered the late 17th C up to the end of the 18th C or up to the early stage of the Fr. Revolution. Enlightenment ideas and outlook did not completely displace older, preexisting notions or outlooks, but they did become very influential in western, northern Europe especially.  

the Enlightenment was also a period of great optimism and expectation that the world and humanity were entering upon a new era of reason, of enlightenment and of knowledge. There were 2 major sources of ideas underlying the Enlightenment outlook: 

1. it owed a great deal to the Renaissance and the recovery and revival of Classical learning; this tradition emphasised human reason and rationality as a path to knowledge and as a way of life. It focused upon deductive logic and reasoning; there was a new emphasis upon being human and upon developing and honouring both the human mind and the human body.
2. 2 it was also rooted in the beginnings of the scientific revolution—Isaac Newton’s defining of the Law of Gravity and the ability to express certain regularities in the universe in mathematical formulations was a great stimulus.

2.Sentimentalism. A literary current in the literature of the late 18th century that emerged as a reaction against the of the Enlightenment rationalism and the traditions ofClassicism. Its adherents stressed the importance of emotion, extolled nature, and made heroes of the common people. Early sentimentalism was influenced by the works of English writers, such as T. Gray, S. Richardson, and J. Thompson. It resulted in the development of new genres in prose and focused renewed attention onelegies, idylls, and folk tales in poetry. In reference to the historical movement of Sentimentalism within the United States of America during the 18th century, Sentimentalism is a European idea that emphasized feelings and emotions, a physical appreciation of God, nature, and other people, rather than logic and reason. The impact on the American people was that love became as important in marriage as financial considerations. Philosophically, sentimentalism was often contrasted to rationalism. While 18th century rationalism corresponded itself with the development of the analytic mind as the basic for acquiring truth, sentimentalism hinged upon an intrinsic human capacity to feel and how this leads to truth. For the sentimentalist this capacity was most important in morality (moral sense theory).  The literary work often featured scenes of distress and tenderness, and the plot was arranged to advance emotions rather than action. The result was a valorization of "fine feeling," displaying the characters as a model for refined, moral and emotional effect. Sentimentalism in literature was also often used as a medium through which authors could promote their own agendas—imploring readers to empathize with the problems they are dealing with in their books.

4. Romanticism is a movement that emerged as a reaction against Neoclassicism, the age preceding the Romantic movement. The Neoclassical age was also called the 'The age of Enlightenment', which emphasized on reason and logic. The Romantic period wanted to break away from the traditions and conventions that were dear to the Neoclassical age and make way for individuality and experimentation. The Romantic movement is said to have emerged in Germany, which soon spread to England as well as France, however, the main source of inspiration for Romanticism came from the events and ideologies of the French Revolution.  Love of Nature: The Romantics greatly emphasized on the importance of nature, and one of the main characteristics of Romanticism in poetry is the beauty of nature found in the country life. Emotions v/s Rationality: Unlike the Neoclassical age which focused on rationality and intellect, Romanticism placed human emotions, feelings, instinct and intuition above everything else. Artist, the Creator: As the Romantic period emphasized on emotions, the position or role of the artist or the poet also gained supremacy. Nationalism: The Romantics borrowed heavily from the folklore and the popular art. During the earlier periods, literature and art were considered to belong to the high class educated people, and the country folks were not considered fit to enjoy them. Exoticism: Along with Nationalism, the Romantics even developed the love of the exotic. Hence, in many of the literary as well as artistic works of that period, the far off and mysterious locations were depicted. Supernatural: Another characteristic of Romanticism is the belief in the supernatural. The Romantics were interested in the supernatural and included it in their works. 

5. The early Romantic period thus coincides with what is often called the "age of revolutions"--including, of course, the American (1776) and the French (1789) revolutions--an age of upheavals in political, economic, and social traditions, the age which witnessed the initial transformations of the Industrial Revolution. Romanticism exalted artistic freedom, the power of imagination and the dignity of the common man. People started to realise that they have inner capabilities which were suppressed and bound to servility. For William Blake nature in its glorious state epitomised the state of innocence. It provided a clear vision of how life should be and showed the way for children and adults to behave. Blooming nature, flowers, lambs and shepherds illustrate the Songs of Innocence. By contrast, the Songs of Experience are characterised by dark forests, sick flowers, and destroyed gardens. For Blake nature symbolises harmony, the primitive view of the world, which has not been overlaid by the restrictions of civilised “reason” and oppression. In Wordsworth, the revolt takes the form of a return to the natural man. For Coleridge the relationship between man and nature is not always harmonious. - The Ancient Mariner, Frost at Midnight. The Second Generation Romantic poets were the more spry of the Romantic poets. The major Second Generation Romantic poets included Byron, Shelley, and Keats. These young guns wanted to seperate themselves from the older poets like Wordsworth, Colderidge, Blake, and Southey. They didn't want to just repeat what those romantics were doing, but wanted to be different, and even better. All of these 2nd Generation poets unfortunately had a trend of early mortality, yet their accomplishments are still impressive.  
 
 
 

5. Critical realism of the 19^th cent. Its characteristics. Ch. Dickens (1812-1870).

Workhouses were the only sources of relief. The workhouses were made to be deliberately unpleasant in order to discourage paupers from seeking their relief. The Victorian middle class assumed that the poor were impoverished due to lassitude.

Ch. Dickens- an English writer of novels who combined great writing with the ability to write popular stories full of interesting characters. His many books are mostly about life in Victorian England and often describe the harsh conditions in which poor people lived.

“Oliver Twist” (1938) is a novel well-known for its realistic descriptions of London’s poor districts&criminals. Oliver is a poor orphan,born in a workhouse who runs away to London. There he joins a group of criminals including Fagin, The Artful Dodger and Bill Sikes who tried to turn him into a thief. Fagin is an ugly, evil old man who receives stolen goods and controls the group of young thieves that Oliver joins. The Artful Dodger is a young thief who steals from people’s pockets.”Oliver Twist” is considered one of Dicken’s best novels. The plot is convoluted&often ridiculous. However it merits study for its critique of Victorian middle class attitudes towards poverty.

The Pickwick Papers (adventures, social satire) was written in 1837. Pickwick is an embodiment of the greatest kind-heartedness&generosity.

Great Expectations is a novel (1811). It’s a story of a young man,Pip, who helped a prisoner to escape when he was a boy. Later the man sends him money, but Pip thinks that it comes from the family of Estella, the girl he loves. He moves to London, expecting to become rich&to marry her. He is cruel to the people who looked after him as a child, bec. He is ashamed of their poverty.But when the money stops coming&Estella marries sb. Else, he goes back to them&learns to be a better person.

David Copperfield is a novel. A boy in Victorian England is sent to London for a life of hard work&poverty. He becomes a successful writer,but marries a silly girl,Dora,without realizing that another woman,Agnes, really loves him.Dora dies&David marries Agnes. The novel is based on D’s own life.   

6. The second half of the 19th century has been called the positivist age. It was an age of faith in all knowledge which would derive from science and scientific objective methods which could solve all human problems. 
   In the visual arts this spirit is most obvious in the widespread rejection of Romantic subjectivism and imagination in favor of Realism - the accurate and apparently objective description of the ordinary, observable world. The novels of George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans) appeared during the 1860s and 70s. A woman of great erudition and moral fervor, Eliot was concerned with ethical conflicts and social problems. George Meredith produced comic novels noted for their psychological perception. 
 
8. George Bernard Shaw is a name in English history who has contributed to the history with his plays and other writings. Drama for Shaw was an activity that could be used as a moral agent as through his dramas, he helped people in terms of solving moral issues. Moreover, he discussed different moral problems in his plays to help the people of society to consider the issue seriously. The issues that he highlighted in his plays are marriage and equal rights for men and women, prostitution and its reasons, relationships and many other social issues. Most of his plays are instructional as they ponder over some social issue being prevalent in the society.

According to Shaw, comedy is the best way to deliver even the harsh realities of the society, so he developed comedy dramas mostly along with philosophical, romantic and other kinds of works, in which he revealed different aspects and truths concerning a problem of society with the help of characters of the dramas (Carpenter 1969). As far as the form of Shaw’s drama is concerned, Shaw develops his dramas against Aristotelian ideology in terms of form of drama. The dramas by George Bernard Shaw usually have a well-structured characterization and the plot is secondary (Berst 1973). Major importance is given to plot according to Aristotelian ideology concerning development of a drama. 

‘Pygmalion’, ‘Mrs. Warren’s Profession’ and ‘Widowers’ Houses’ 
The characteristic features that can be found in dramas by Shaw are sense of form and management of plot. As it is mentioned earlier that for Shaw, plot is of secondary importance as it is the one that has the material that the characters employ to depict a social issue (Carpenter 1969). Most of his plays are informed as having no end as the reader is left free to originate his own ending that he/she thinks suitable to attach to the drama. Nevertheless, some of his plays have endings, which are decisive (Bentley 1960). His dramas give messages related to social problems prevalent in Shaw’s society. Another prominent feature that can be found in Shaw’s dramas is the employment of paradox that is employed so wittily that like Shakespearean, Shaw’s employed techniques are associated with his name as Shavian (Berst 1966). He always gives a moral message in his plot development. He always divides his dramas into a specific format that is exposition, complication and discussion. Shaw’s plays work as intellectual stimulation and provocation for the audience (Carpenter 1969). 
According to Shaw, the concept of drama deals with morality (Shaw 1960). To him, the plot always comes secondary because it is the characterization that puts life in the plot or otherwise the plot is worthless. Shaw works against the principles set by Aristotle. For him, characterization is the most important aspect and the action should be there with the help of characters. Form and plot are there in a play by Shaw to add to the effectiveness of the characters in terms of their development. All the plays considered in the paper, ‘Pygmalion’, ‘Mrs. Warren’s Profession’ and ‘Widowers’ Houses’ depict that the characters in the play are given major consideration while plot is only employed to help the characters proceed in their actions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

7. The naturalism in literature definition states that, 'Naturalism in literature was a literary movement, that began in the late nineteenth century (1865-1900) in film, art, literature and theater that portrays common values of an ordinary individual.' Naturalism was a literary movement that suggested the involvement of environment, heredity and social conditions in shaping the human character. Naturalism or literary naturalism, originated as a French movement, where the naturalistic writers were influenced by the theory of evolution of Charles Darwin and the ideas of Hippolyte Taine, a philosopher. Naturalistic writers wrote stories that adopted the perspective that a person's character is determined by one's lineage and environment. The term 'naturalism' was coined by Emile Zola, an influential French writer.

The main characteristic of literary naturalism is pessimism, where a character tends to repeat a phrase having a pessimistic outlook, which sometimes emphasizes the inevitability and quality of death.

Detachment. The author tries to maintain an objective tone and sometimes achieves detachment or change by introducing nameless characters. This focuses mainly on the plot and character rather than focusing on the character only.

Determinism. The author makes the reader believe that the fate of the character has already been predetermined by certain factors, specially environmental factors and he can do nothing to change it. 

the surprising twist at the end of the plot. There is a strong sense in the naturalist stories and novels that nature is not affected by human struggle. The key themes, survival, determinism, violence, and taboo, have been ideally portrayed in all the works of this literature genre.

Neo-romanticism is a broad movement crossing artistic boundaries that gave more importance to the representation of internal feelings. It started as a reaction to naturalism in the 19th century and harked back to the Romantic era, but it has since become a reaction to modernism and post-modernism. Neo-romanticism began in Britain around 1880, but later spread to other parts of the world including Eastern Europe, America and even India. Characteristics of neo-romanticism include the expression of strong emotions such as terror, awe, horror and love. The movement sought to revive romanticism and medievalism by promoting the power of imagination, the exotic and the unfamiliar. Other characteristics include the promotion of supernatural experiences. Human emotions were as important as the supernatural. Neo-romanticism sought to promote ideas such as perfect love, the beauty of youth, heroes and romantic deaths. 

9. Modernist literature is sub-genre of Modernism, a predominantly European movement beginning in the early 20th century that was characterized by a self-conscious break with traditional aesthetic forms. Many scholars mark the beginning of the modernist literary movement with the publication of James Joyce's 1922 novel Ulysses. Modernist literature attempted to move from the bonds of Realist literature and to introduce concepts such as disjointed timelines. Modernism as a literary movement is seen, in large part, as a reaction to the emergence of city life as a central force in society. Where Romanticism stressed the subjectivity of experience, Modernist writers were more acutely conscious of the objectivity of their surroundings. In Modernism the object is; the language doesn't mean it is. This is a shift from an epistemological aesthetic to an ontological aesthetic or, in simpler terms, a shift from a knowledge-based aesthetic to a being-based aesthetic. This shift is central to Modernism. Juxtaposition, irony, comparisons, and satire are elements found in modernist writing. The most obvious stylistic tool of the modernist writer is that it is often written in first person. Rather than a traditional story having a beginning, middle and end, modernist writing typically reads as a long stream of consciousness similar to a rant. This can leave the reader slightly confused as to what they are supposed to take away from the work. Juxtaposition could be used for example in a way to represent something that would be oftentimes unseen, for example, a cat and a mouse as best friends. Irony and satire are important tools for the modernist writer in aiding them to make fun of and point out faults in what they are writing about, normally problems within their society, whether it is governmental, political, or social ideas.]Thematic characteristics. For the first-time reader, modernist writing can seem frustrating to understand because of the fragmentation and lack of conciseness of the writing. The plot, characters and themes of the text are not always linear. The goal of modernist literature is not heavily focused on catering to one particular audience in a formal way. Modernist writing is more interested in getting the writer's ideas, opinions, and thoughts out into the public at as high a volume as possible. Modernist literature often forcefully opposes or gives an opinion on a social concept. The breaking down of social norms, rejection of standard social ideas and traditional thoughts and expectations, objection to religion and anger towards the effects of the world wars, and the rejection of the truth are topics widely seen in this literary era. A rejection of history, social systems, and a sense of loneliness are also common themes. Emerging in France during the last quarter of the 19th century with movements such as Naturalism, Symbolism, Decadence and Aestheticism, early Modernist work began to appear in Britain and America from the 1890s and it remained an influential force right up until the Second World War.

* A strong and intentional break with tradition. This break includes a strong reaction against established religious, political, and social views. 
* Modernists believe the world is created in the act of perceiving it; that is, the world is what we say it is. 
* Modernists do not subscribe to absolute truth. All things are relative. 
* Modernists feel no connection with history or institutions. Their experience is that of alienation, loss, and despair. 
* Modernists champion the individual and celebrate inner strength."Mirrors instead of windows."  
* Modernists believe life is unordered.(The fragmented, broken, pieced-together.) 
 
* Modernists concern themselves with the sub-conscious. 

10. The term Postmodern literature is used to describe certain characteristics of post–World War II literature (relying heavily, for example, on fragmentation, paradox, questionable narrators, etc.) and a reaction against Enlightenment ideas implicit in Modernist literature.

Postmodern literature, like postmodernism as a whole, is hard to define and there is little agreement on the exact characteristics, scope, and importance of postmodern literature. But as is often the case with artistic movements, postmodern literature is commonly defined in relation to its precursor. For example, instead of the modernist quest for meaning in a chaotic world, the postmodern author avoids, often playfully, the possibility of meaning, and the postmodern novel is often a parody of this quest. Postmodern authors also tend to celebrate chance over craft, and further employ metafiction to undermine the writer's authority. Another characteristic of postmodern literature is the questioning of distinctions between high and low culture through the use of pastiche, the combination of subjects and genres not previously deemed fit for literature. Scope

Postmodernism in literature is not an organized movement with leaders or central figures; therefore, it is more difficult to say if it has ended or when it will end (compared to, say, declaring the end of modernism with the death of Joyce or Woolf). Arguably postmodernism peaked in the 60s and 70s with the publication of Catch-22 in 1961, Lost in the Funhouse in 1968, Slaughterhouse-Five in 1969, Gravity's Rainbow in 1973, and many others. Some declared the death of postmodernism in the 80's with a new surge of realism represented and inspired by Raymond Carver. Tom Wolfe in his 1989 article "Stalking the Billion-Footed Beast" called for a new emphasis on realism in fiction to replace postmodernism.^[8] With this new emphasis on realism in mind, some declared White Noise in 1985 or The Satanic Verses in 1988 to be the last great novels of the postmodern era. Irony, playfulness, black humor 
Postmodern authors were certainly not the first to use irony and humor in their writing, but for many postmodern authors, these became the hallmarks of their style. Postmodern authors will often treat very serious subjects—World War II, the Cold War, conspiracy theories—from a position of distance and disconnect, and will choose to depict their histories ironically and humorously. Pastiche 
Many postmodern authors combined, or “pasted” elements of previous genres and styles of literature to create a new narrative voice, or to comment on the writing of their contemporaries. An important element of postmodernism is its acknowledgment of previous literary works. The intertextuality of certain works of postmodern fiction, the dependence on literature that has been created earlier, attempts to comment on the situation in which both literature and society found themselves in the  second half of the 20th century: living, working, and creating on the backs of those that had come before. Metafiction 
Many postmodern authors feature metafiction in their writing, which, essentially, is writing about writing, an attempt to make the reader aware of its ficitionality, and, sometimes, the presence of the author. Authors sometimes use this technique to allow for flagrant shifts in narrative, impossible jumps in time, or to maintain emotional distance as a narrator. Temporal distortion 
Temporal distortion is a literary technique that uses a nonlinear timeline; the author may jump forwards or backwards in time, or there may be cultural and historical references that do not fit. Paranoia 
Many postmodern authors write under the assumption that modern society cannot be explained or understood. Maximalism.Minimalism. Many critics now consider his work on the cusp between modernism and postmodernism.

12. Irving (1783-1859) was America's first man of letters, devoting much of his career to literature. In his short stories, he usually starts with standard characters--the lazy husbands, for instance, and the termagant wife. He is able, however, in his better stories to place them in a home-like situation and in surroundings that give the stories a kind of vitality. Irving's choice of incidents and descriptive details adds a note of symbolism to the basic themes, creating an almost Gothic atmosphere. He was an American author, essayist,biographer and historian of the early 19th century. He is best known for his short stories "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" and "Rip Van Winkle." was influential in the development of the short story form and helped to gain international respect for American literature. Being not a mere writer of horror stories he adopted many European myths and legends and created new American archetypes. It is in this category that Irving achieves significant stature, though his talents in this respect were not entirely original, for he himself admitted the German romantics. 'The Legend of Sleepy Hollow', for instance, was probably based on a German legend. treats directly and often satirically the absence of Am. cultural traditions. his 1^st publ. writing a series of essays satirising the Am. political, social, and lit. provincialism. 
James Fenimore Cooper (September 15, 1789 – September 14, 1851) was a prolific and popular American writer of the early 19th century. He is best remembered as a novelist who wrote numerous sea-stories and the historical novels known as the Leatherstocking Tales, featuring frontiersman Natty Bumppo. Among his most famous works is the Romantic novelThe Last of the Mohicans, often regarded as his masterpiece. aimed to produce a purely Am. work on the theme of love of country. Contribution: the 1^st Am. novelist to and define native themes, settings, and characters; launched distinct genres in Am. fiction: the Am. novel of manners, the sea novel, the Eur.-Am. novel, and the novel of the mythic frontier – his ‘The Leatherstocking Tales’; opened new territories for Am. fiction: the nation’s past, frontier, and life at sea; contrib. to the issues of Am. identity in his social criticism: the qualities of leadership, standards of excellence, and measures for minority and majority voices. 
 
 
14. Henry James, William Dean Howells, Mark Twain 1865-1910. The industrial revolution that took place at the end of the 19^th century changed our country in remarkable ways. People left rural homes for opportunities in urban cities. With the development of new machinery and equipment, the U.S. economy became more focused on factory production; Americans did not have to chiefly rely on farming and agriculture to support their families. At the same time, immigrants from all over the world crowded into tenements to take advantage of new urban opportunities. In the end, the sweeping economic, social, and political changes that took place in post-war life allowed American Realism to prevail. American realists built their plots and characters around people's ordinary, everyday lives. Additionally, their works contained regional dialects and extensive dialogue which connected well with the public. As a result, readers were attracted to the realists because they saw their own struggles in print. Conversely, the public had little patience for the slow paced narratives, allegory and symbolism of the romantic writers. America was shifting into higher gear and readers wanted writers who clearly communicated the complexities of their human experiences.

Huckleberry Finn is one of the most prominent representations of Mark Twain's Realism. Huckleberry Finn is an abused and neglected 13-year-old boy, whose father is a mean drunk in St. Petersburg, Missouri. We see the world from Huck's point of view as he attempts to decipher the world around him. Along the way, Mark Twain explodes social conventions and depicts the hypocrisy of "civilized" society. Samuel Langhorne Clemens (November 30, 1835 – April 21, 1910),^[1] better known by his pen name Mark Twain, was an American author and humorist. He is most noted for his novels, The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876), and its sequel, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1885),^[2] the latter often called "the Great American Novel." Walter "Walt" Whitman (May 31, 1819 – March 26, 1892) was an American poet, essayist and journalist. A humanist, he was a part of the transition between transcendentalism andrealism, incorporating both views in his works. Whitman is among the most influential poets in the American canon, often called the father of free verse. Franklin Evans (1842), Leaves of Grass (1855).

16. American Modernism covered a wide variety of topics including race relations, gender roles, and sexuality. It reached its peak in America in the 1920s up to the 1940s. Celebrated Modernists include Ezra Pound, William Carlos Williams, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ernest Hemingway andWilliam Faulkner, and while largely regarded as a romantic poet, Walt Whitman is sometimes regarded as a pioneer of the modernist era in America. American modernists echoed the mid-19th-century focus on the attempt to "buid a self" - a theme well illustrated by the classic modernist work The Great Gatsby. The modernist period also brought changes to the portrayal of gender roles and especially to women's role in society. It is an era under the sign of emancipation and change in society, issues which reflect themselves in the literature of the period, as well. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby, for example, deals with such topics as gender interaction in a mundane society. Influenced by the first World War, American modernist writers, such as Ernest Hemingway, offer an insight into the psychological wounds and spiritual scars of the war experience. The economic crisis in America at the beginning of the 1930s also left a mark on the literary creations of the period, such as John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath. Nevertheless, all these negative aspects led to new hopes and aspirations, and to the search for a new beginning, not only for the contemporary individuals, but also for the fictional characters in American modernist literature. Race relations between blacks and whites, the gap between what was expected of each of the two and what the facts were, or, better said, prejudice in the society of the time are themes dealt with in most of the modernist American literature, whether we speak about prose (Jean Toomer, Zora Neale Hurston, William Faulkner, Ernest Hemingway), or about drama (Eugene O'Neill).  William Cuthbert Faulkner (born Falkner, September 25, 1897 – July 6, 1962) was an American writer and nobel prize laureate from Oxford, Mississippi. Faulkner worked in a variety of media; he wrote novels, short stories, a play, poetry, essays and screenplays during his career. He is primarily known and acclaimed for his novels and short stories. The Sound and the Fury (1929), Light in August (1932), "A Rose for Emily", "Red Leaves", "That Evening Sun".  Faulkner made frequent use of "stream of consciousness" in his writing, and wrote often highly emotional, subtle, cerebral, complex, and sometimes Gothic or grotesque stories of a wide variety of characters including former slaves or descendants of slaves, poor white, agrarian, or working-class Southerners, and Southern aristocrats. Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald (September 24, 1896 – December 21, 1940) was an American author of novels and short stories, whose works are the paradigm writings of the Jazz Age, a term he coined himself. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest American writers of the 20th century.^[1] Fitzgerald is considered a member of the "Lost Generation" of the 1920s. He finished four novels: This Side of Paradise, The Beautiful and Damned, Tender is the Night and his most famous, The Great Gatsby. A fifth, unfinished novel, The Love of the Last Tycoon, was published posthumously. Ernest Miller Hemingway (July 21, 1899 – July 2, 1961) was an American author and journalist. His economical and understated style had a strong influence on 20th-century fiction, while his life of adventure and his public image influenced later generations. Hemingway produced most of his work between the mid-1920s and the mid-1950s, and won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954. He published seven novels, six short story collections and two non-fiction works. Three novels, four collections of short stories and three non-fiction works were published posthumously.  The Sun Also Rises (1926), A Farewell to Arms (1929), The Old Man and the Sea (1951)

The recurring themes of American literature are clearly evident in Hemingway's work. Nature is where men are without women. The theme of women and death is evident in stories as early as "Indian Camp". The theme of emasculation is prevalent in Hemingway's work, most notably in The Sun Also Rises.

18. Postmodernism 1946-Present. Content: 
people observe life as the media presents it, rather than experiencing life directly 
popular culture saturates people's lives 
absurdity and coincidence. Genre/Style: 
mixing of fantasy with nonfiction; blurs lines of reality for reader 
no heroes 
concern with individual in isolation 
detached, unemotional 
usually humorless 
narratives 
metafiction 
present tense 
magic realism 
Effect: 
erodes distinctions between classes of people 
insists that values are not permanent but only "local" or "historical" 
Joseph Heller (May 1, 1923 – December 12, 1999) was a US satirical novelist, short storywriter, and playwright. His best known work is Catch-22, a novel about US servicemen duringWorld War II. The title of this work entered the English lexicon to refer to absurd, no-win choices, particularly in situations in which the desired outcome of the choice is an impossibility, and regardless of choice, the same negative outcome is a certainty. Heller is widely regarded as one of the best post–World War II satirists. Although he is remembered primarily for Catch-22, his other works center on the lives of various members of the middle class and remain exemplars of modern satire. Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. ( /ˈvɒnɨɡət/; November 11, 1922 – April 11, 2007) was a 20th century American writer.^[2] His works such as Cat'sCradle (1963), Slaughterhouse-Five (1969) andBreakfast of Champions (1973) blend satire, gallows humor and science fiction. He was known for his humanist beliefs and was honorary president of the American Humanist Association. Vonnegut listed eight rules for writing a short story:Use the time of a total stranger in such a way that he or she will not feel the time was wasted.

20. Although the United States' theatrical tradition can be traced back to the arrival of Lewis Hallam's troupe in the mid-18th century and was very active in the 19th century, as seen by the popularity of minstrel shows and of adaptations of Uncle Tom's Cabin, American drama attained international status only in the 1920s and 1930s, with the works of Eugene O'Neill, who won three Pulitzer Prizes and the Nobel Prize. In the middle of the 20th century, American drama was dominated by the work of playwrights Tennessee Williams and Arthur Miller, as well as by the maturation of the American musical, which had found a way to integrate script, music and dance in such works as Oklahoma! and West Side Story. Later American playwrights of importance include Edward Albee, Sam Shepard, David Mamet, Wendy Wasserstein and August Wilson.

Eugene Gladstone O'Neill (October 16, 1888 – November 27, 1953) was an American playwright and Nobel laureate in Literature. His poetically titled plays were among the first to introduce into American drama techniques of realism earlier associated with Russian playwright Anton Chekhov, Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen, and Swedish playwright August Strindberg. His plays were among the first to include speeches in American vernacular and involve characters on the fringes of society, where they struggle to maintain their hopes and aspirations, but ultimately slide into disillusionment and despair. O'Neill wrote only one well-known comedy (Ah, Wilderness!).^[1][2] Nearly all of his other plays involve some degree oftragedy and personal pessimism.

11. Benjamin Franklin once noted that the business of making a nation restricted literary activity in Colonial America. Franklin seemed to think that people needed a stable government and economy before they could make great advances in cultural pursuits such as literature, music, and painting. Indeed, between the settlement of Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607 and the treaty ending the American Revolution in 1783, Americans did lag behind their English contemporaries in the production of epic poetry, drama, and fiction. Still, Colonial America did produce an impressive body of literature, much of it in the form of nonfiction prose, such as autobiography and sermon.  

Some central themes emerge from this literature. Because of the nature of their endeavor, for example, Captain John Smith and other chroniclers of settlement in the 17th century often addressed the subjects of will and work, the relationship between humans and nature, and the differences between European and Native American cultures. In this same century, Puritans such as Anne Bradstreet and John Winthrop wrote about their spiritual feelings and quests, Bradstreet in very personal poems and a journal, Winthrop in both a famous public sermon and an intimate journal. This tradition continued into the following century, when Puritan Jonathan Edwards and non-Puritans such as Phillis Wheatley and John Woolman reflected on their faith in poems and journals. Other writers, including Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, produced more public literature designed to entertain people or further their political aims. In its emphasis on human potential and reason, much of this literature reflects the prevailing sentiments of its era, often called the Enlightenment or the Age of Reason.

Thomas Jefferson (April 13, 1743 (April 2, 1743 O.S.) – July 4, 1826) was an AmericanFounding Father who was the principal author of the United States Declaration of Independence(1776) and the third President of the United States (1801). Benjamin Franklin (January 17, 1706 [O.S. January 6, 1705^[1]] – April 17, 1790) was one of theFounding Fathers of the United States. A noted polymath, Franklin was a leading author, printer,political theorist, politician, postmaster, scientist, musician, inventor, satirist, civic activist, statesman, and diplomat. As a scientist, he was a major figure in the American Enlightenmentand the history of physics for his discoveries and theories regarding electricity.

13. Romantic Period in American Literature, 1830-1865. The period between the "second revolution" of the Jacksonian Era and the close of the Civil War in America saw the testings of a nation and its development by ordeal. It was an age of great westward expansion, of the increasing gravity of the slavery question, of an intensification of the spirit of embattled sectionalism in the South, and of a powerful impulse to reform in the North. Its culminating act was the trial by arms of the opposing views in a civil war, whose conclusion certified the fact of a united nation dedicated to the concepts of industry and capitalism and philosophically committed to egalitarianism. In a sense it may be said that the three decades following the inauguration of President Andrew Jackson in 1829 put to the test his views of democracy and saw emerge from the test a secure union committed to essentially Jacksonian principles (Harmon, 6th. Edition). 1800-1860. American Romanticism embraced the individual and rebelled against the confinement of neoclassicism and religious tradition. The Romantic movement in America created a new literary genre that continues to influence American writers. Novels, short stories, and poems replaced the sermons and manifestos of yore. Romantic literature was personal, intense, and portrayed more emotion than ever seen in neoclassical literature. America's preoccupation with freedom became a great source of motivation for Romantic writers as many were delighted in free expression and emotion without so much fear of ridicule and controversy. They also put more effort into the psychological development of their characters, and the main characters typically displayed extremes of sensitivity and excitement.^[ Romanticism stressed nature and indviduality along with the powers of the imagination. It has a broad range of movements including Trancendentilism made popular by the likes of Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau, it also included historical fiction like Cooper and Melville. Inside of these range of movements are authors like Washington Irving and Edgar Allen Poe. Together the Romantics make up the first great American literary generation.

15. Naturalism starts getting big around 1890 and remains huge in American lit for twenty years or so.  Its most famous practitioners are Stephen Crane (who published The Red Badge of Courage in 1895), Upton Sinclair (who published The Jungle in 1906), and Theodore Dreiser (whose published Sister Carriein 1900). Naturalism is an outgrowth of realism.  Like realism, it wants to present an almost photographically accurate version of "real" life.  It's full of facts and details about an everyday world ordinary people may well recognize.  Its characters speak the same dialects real Americans speak.  And it's generally plot driven.  Naturalist writers aren't interested in individuality the way the realists were.  They don't think it's the individual's place to change the world, and whatever moral struggle s/he goes through may very well add up to little or nothing.  1.Naturalism's central belief, in fact, is that individual human beings are at the mercy of uncontrollable larger forces that originate both inside and outside them.  2. Naturalist works are more likely to be political than traditional realist works.  A great many naturalists want to expose the cruelty of certain "larger forces," more often than not America's voracious capitalist economy.3. Naturalist works are more likely than realist works to deal with extraordinary subject matter.  In their desire to show how larger forces control and manipulate people, naturalist works often deal with subjects most comfortable middle-class readers wouldn't consider part of their ordinary lives: war, violence, crime, natural disaster, urban squalor, poverty.... 

Even though there are rumblings of it in earlier decades (Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter, for instance, published in 1850), realism doesn't become the dominant literary style in the U.S. till the 1870s.  And it's the influence of one hugely important novelist and literary critic, a guy named William Dean Howells (his most famous novel is The Rise of Silas Lapham, 1885), that really makes it dominant.  Howells, Henry James, and Mark Twain are the movement's most famous practitioners. Stephen Crane (November 1, 1871 – June 5, 1900) was an American novelist, short story writer, poet and journalist. Prolific throughout his short life, he wrote notable works in the Realist tradition as well as early examples of American Naturalism and Impressionism. He is recognized by modern critics as one of the most innovative writers of his generation. Maggie: A Girl of the Streets (1893), The Red Badge of Courage (1895). Theodore Herman Albert Dreiser (August 27, 1871 – December 28, 1945) was an American novelist and journalist of the naturalist school. His novels often featured main characters who succeeded at their objectives despite a lack of a firm moral code, and literary situations that more closely resemble studies of nature than tales of choice and agency.^[1] Dreiser's best known novels include Sister Carrie (1900) and An American Tragedy (1925). John Griffith "Jack" London (born John Griffith Chaney,^[1] January 12, 1876 – November 22, 1916)^[2][3][4][5] was an American author, journalist, and social activist. He was a pioneer in the then-burgeoning world of commercial magazine fiction and was one of the first fiction writers to obtain worldwide celebrity and a large fortune from his fiction alone.^[6] He is best remembered as the author of Call of the Wild and White Fang, both set in the Klondike Gold Rush, as well as the short stories "To Build a Fire", "An Odyssey of the North", and "Love of Life".^{[citation needed]} He also wrote of the South Pacific in such stories as "The Pearls of Parlay" and "The Heathen", and of the San Francisco Bay area in The Sea Wolf.

17. Southern literature (sometimes called the literature of the American South) is defined as American literature about the Southern United States or by writers from this region. Characteristics of Southern literature include a focus on a common Southern history, the significance offamily, a sense of community and one’s role within it, a sense of justice, the region's dominant religion (Christianity — see Protestantism) and the burdens/rewards religion often brings, issues of racial tension, land and the promise it brings, a sense of social class and place, and the use of the Southern dialect.^[1]

In addition to the geographical component of Southern literature, certain themes have appeared because of the similar histories of the Southern states in regard to slavery, the American Civil War, and Reconstruction. The conservative culture in the South has also produced a strong focus within Southern literature on the significance of family, religion, community in one's personal and social life, the use of theSouthern dialect,^[1] and a strong sense of "place."^[5] The South's troubled history with racial issues also continually appears in its literature.^[ Despite these common themes, there is debate as to what makes writers and their literature "Southern". For example, Mark Twain, arguably the father of Southern literature^[why?], defined the characteristics that many people associate with Southern writing in his novel The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. He even referred to himself as a "Southern writer". During the 17th and 18th centuries, English colonists in the Southern part of the American colonies produced a number of notable works. Two of the most famous were early memoirs of Virginia: Captain John Smith's account of the founding of Jamestown in the 1610s and 1620s, andWilliam Byrd II's secret plantation diary, kept in the early 18th century. Both sets of recollections are critical documents in early Southern history. The “lost cause” years. In the second half of the 19th century, the South lost the Civil War and suffered through what many white southerners considered a harsh occupation (called Reconstruction). In place of the Anti-Tom literature came poetry and novels about the "Lost Cause of the Confederacy." This nostalgic literature began to appear almost immediately after the war ended; The Conquered Banner was published on June 24, 1865. These writers idealized the defeated South and its lost culture. Prominent writers with this point of view included poets Henry Timrod, Daniel B. Lucas, Abram Joseph Ryan, and Sidney Lanier and fiction writer Thomas Nelson Page. In the 1920s and 1930s, a renaissance in Southern literature began with the appearance of writers such as William Faulkner, Katherine Anne Porter, Caroline Gordon, Allen Tate, Thomas Wolfe, Robert Penn Warren, and Tennessee Williams, among others. Because of the distance the Southern Renaissance authors had from the American Civil War and slavery, they were more objective in their writings about the South.  The late 1930s also saw the publication of one of the best-known Southern novels, Gone with the Wind by Margaret Mitchell. Southern literature following the Second World War grew thematically as it embraced the social and cultural changes in the South resulting from the American Civil Rights Movement. In addition, more female and African American writers began to be accepted as part of Southern literature, including African Americans such as Zora Neale Hurston and Sterling Allen Brown, along with women such as Eudora Welty,Flannery O'Connor, Ellen Glasgow, Carson McCullers, Katherine Anne Porter, and Shirley Ann Grau, among many others. Other well-known Southern writers of this period include Reynolds Price, James Dickey, William Price Fox, Davis Grubb, Walker Percy, and William Styron. 

19. Toni Morrison (born Chloe Anthony Wofford^[1] on February 18, 1931) is a Nobel Prize andPulitzer Prize-winning American novelist, editor, and professor. Her novels are known for theirepic themes, vivid dialogue, and richly detailed characters. Among her best known novels areThe Bluest Eye, Song of Solomon and Beloved. She also was commissioned to write the libretto for a new opera, Margaret Garner, first performed in 2005.

Although her novels typically concentrate on black women, Morrison does not identify her works as feminist.^[13] She has stated that she thinks "it's off-putting to some readers, who may feel that I'm involved in writing some kind of feminist tract. I don't subscribe to patriarchy, and I don't think it should be substituted with matriarchy. I think it's a question of equitable access, and opening doors to all sorts of things. Novels - The Bluest Eye (1970),  Sula (1973)  Beloved (1987), Children's literature (with Slade Morrison), Short fiction, Plays, Libretti, non-fiction

Multicultural literature teaches diversity, it is anti-racist, and it is transformative. Sims (1983) contends that “such literature is essential to the educational and psychological well-being of both black and white children in this nation” (p. 21).  She says excluding blacks and children of color from literature or the inclusion of negative stereotypes and subtle racism is harmful to all children. Children of color are denied their basic humanity and human dignity, and white children are fed the poison of racism and presented a false picture of the world and their place in it. Multicultural literature has the power to promote favorable attitudes and foster positive behaviors on the part of readers. Literature is an extraordinary conveyor of ideals, values, and mores, it helps us discover things about ourselves. Multicultural literature facilitates learning about the realities of others, thereby expanding our own. Thus, the whole narration moves around the black's social, economical, political, physical, personal, communal and spiritual aspects under which the entire novel or the entire narrative of Tony Morrison is rolling. One can get the actual vision of the black culture and their reality by seeing the narrative technique of Tony Morrison. In this sense the novel is filled with the characteristic of black narratives.  
      In this sense Tony Morrison's Beloved is one of the multicultural novels because it raises the realistic vision of different cultures regarding the cultural positions, their identity, political, economical, cultural, social as well as spiritual aspects of the black culture. Not only about black culture but even the image of upper class culture, master's behave towards the slave etc. are also shown. By the same token the cultural aspects regarding to the different aspects of black cultures has also been reflected. It also includes the qualities of black narratives by narrating the past situations of slaves together with the consciousness of present and future. After all, the holistic formation of the novel is about the multicultural voices inside the features of black narratives.