Basic units of language and speech

The peculiarity of pronouns is that variants of the same lexeme may be correlated with different parts of speech. This in the sentence is this a bike? is a pronoun, while in a sentence He gave me this bike it is a pro-adjective.

According to Yu.O. Zhluktenko in grammars of both languages there are differentiated the following classes of pronouns: 1) personal (особові), 2) possessive (присвійні), 3) reflexive (зворотні),4)demonstrative (вказівні), 5) interrogative (питальні), 6) relative (відносні), 7) indefinite (неозначені), 8) negative (заперечні).

Eng generalizing pronouns(узагальнюючі) (all, each) have a lot in common with such Ukr pronouns which are distinguished into the class of defining pronouns (весь, інший). the pronoun сам belonging to this class corresponds in Eng to the whole class of pronouns which are called strengthening (myself, yourself) In Engl there are reciprocal pronouns (each other, one another), distinguishing (other, another), and indefinite-personal (one) pronouns.

In Ukrainian the pronoun is also a notional part of speech which does not name objects, their qualities and quantities but only indicates them.

Grammatical categories of pronoun. The category of number is only characteristic of the English demonstrative(this, that), the differentiating [other), reflexive and strengthening pronouns (myself— ourselves).

In Ukrainian the category of number is expressed by demonstrative (той, цей), possessive (мій — мої), some interrogative and relative (який, чий) and created from them negative (ніякий) and indefinite (деякий, абиякий), as well as in some defining (всякий, кожний). In Ukrainian pronouns have the same six cases as the nouns. But similar to numerals, Ukrainian pronouns do not have the common system of declination.

22. Personal and possessive pronouns

English personal pronouns are the nucleus of the class. They are: I (me), he (him), she (her), it, we (us), you, they (them). Personal pronouns serve to indicate all persons and things from the point of view of the speaker who indicates himself/herself or a group of persons including him/her by means of the personal pronouns of the first person — I, we.

In Modern English personal pronouns have the category of case represented in two-member opposemes. The general meaning of “case” manifests itself in the particular meanings of the “nominative” and “objective” cases.

According to O.D. Ponomariv [16; 163] Ukrainian personal pronouns are subdivided into two groups: personal (я, mu, ми, ви,)and personal-demonstrative (він, вона, воно, вонu).

In Ukrainian the person and the number are expressed with the help of endings (читаю, читаєш, читає, читаємо тощо) in English the indexes of the verb’s person and number are the personal pronouns ( I read, you read, we read and so on), In English we cannot use the verb-predicate without the subject as in Ukrainian, e.g.: Каже”, Підходить і питає”, we necessarily should use the pronoun in the function of subject: He says; He comes up and asks.

English possessive pronouns are usually treated as adjective pronouns, whereas they are in reality noun pro-nouns or pro-nouns, but they replace only possessive case nouns with which they are correlated. Compare: This is the teacher’s (his, her) bicycle. This bicycle is the teacher’s (his, hers).

Ukrainian possessive pronouns include: мій, твій, ваш, наш, свій, його, її, їх, їхній. Possessive pronouns have the categories of gender and number and are declined according to six cases (мій, моє, моя, мої; мій, мого, моєму...).

In Ukrainian when there appears the need to render the belonging of some object to some person, the possessive pronoun свій is used. In English we do not have the direct correspondence to the pronoun свій and in each case the possessive pronoun of the person who is the doer of the action is used, e.g.: I did my work; you took your book.

23. Reflexive and strengthening pronouns

English reflexive pronouns are compound noun-pronouns whose second element -self expresses the anaphoric relation of the first element; that is it shows that the first element refers to the person mentioned previously in the sentence. In English there are eight reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves. English reflexive pronouns have the category of number and differentiate between the person and “non-person” (compare: himself, herself and itself).

The Ukrainian reflexive pronoun себе indicating towards some person or object does not have the nominative case form, as well as it does not possess the categories of gender and number. It can denote in certain contexts any gender in singular and in plural, replacing all personal pronouns in indirect cases, e.g.: Я знаю себе. Ти знаєш себе.

Strengthening pronouns. The English reflexive pronouns are the homonyms of the similar by their quantity group of strengthening pronouns. In grammars these pronouns are sometimes united into one class of reflexive-strengthening pronouns. But in reality these pronouns are of different types.

The difference between the reflexive and strengthening pronouns is determined syntactically: when myself, himself and others are used in connection with the verb (e.g.: He put himself a question “він запитав себе^,У), then their meaning is reflexive. In Ukr. The strengthening function is performed by only one defining pronoun cam . It has the category of gender(сам, сама, само) and number (самі)

 

24. Demonstrative pronouns

In English usually only the pronouns this (these), that (those), such and the same are regarded as demonstrative. The sphere of this or these is the space and time close to the speaker and the moment of speech whereas the sphere of that and those is the time or space farther away from the speaker and the moment of speech, The pronouns such and (the) same indicate objects or qualities by comparison with those pointed at by the speaker.

Ukr demonstrative pronouns той, оцей, такий, сей their variants тая, тую, тії, цяя, ції, стільки indicate towards the objects and their qualities demonstrative pronoun стільки correlates with the cardinal numeral- combination with the word самий (той самий, цей самий) they not only point towards the object but also identify it.

English pronouns this and that have the category of number (plural these, those) and usually correlate with the modified nouns in number. Other demonstrative pronouns are indeclinable.

The English pronoun this (these) points to something closer to the speaker, and that(those) – to something more distant from it. Арргохіmately the same meanings are expressed by the Ukrainian pronouns той, цей, though in Ukrainian this difference is not as distinct as in English. Ukrainian цей can be used also for denoting more distant objects, or the objects which are not available, also for denoting past and future moments or time periods — in all these cases the English pronoun that is used, e.g.:

Ви  бачите там під горою білий  будинок? У цьому будинку живе мій товариш.

Do you see the white house down there? My friend lives in that house.

The pronoun такий is often used with adjectives for the strengthening of their quality: такий молодий, такий страшний. In English in such cases we use the adverb so: so young, so terrible.

 

25. In both languages interrogative pronouns express the meaning of the object (who, what, хто, що), its quality (what, який), belonging (whose, чий), the place it takes among similar objects. In Eng there are also pronouns of time (when), cause (why), manner (how). In Ukr – quantity (скільки). Pronoun who/ хто is used regarding living beings, which/ що – inanimate objects. In Eng only the pronoun who has the nominative and objective cases, while in Ukr all interrogative pronouns are declinable (чий, який have forms of gender, number, similar to adjectives).

Relative pronouns are used as means of joining complex sentences and in Eng they are performed by interrogative pronouns who, which, whose, what, that, as, in Ukr – хто, який, котрий, що. They perform the function of the subjective member of the sentence. They differentiate the person and non-person (who, хто (used regarding persons) – what,що (inanimate objects and animals)). Pronoun whose is usually placed before noun in Eng (The boy, whose book...), while in Ukr after the noun (Хлопець, книга якого...). Pronouns that in Eng and що in Ukr can refer to both living beings and inanimate objects (The book, that..., The boy, that).

 

 

26. Indefinite pronouns in both lang point towards unknown objects and their qualities. In Eng: some, any, every (+thing), all, each, either, much, few. In Ukr built from interrogative pronouns by adding particles -небуть, казна-, хтозна-, аби-, де-, -сь (аби-хто). In both lang differentiate the person and non-person (smb-smth). In Eng. some and its derivatives is used in affirmative sentences, and any and its derivatives – in interrogative and negative. (abcent in Ukr). In Eng the pronouns smb, anybody, someone, anyone have the forms of common and possessive cases, and can be used in function of attribute. In Ukr – have the category of case, and those which have чий, який in their structure – the category of gender and number.

Negative pronouns denote the absence of some object or quality. Eng pronouns are created with help of no + body, thing, one (also none, nowhere).In Ukr they are formed with help of negative particle ні + interrogative pronouns(хто, який). In En they are unchangeable, except nobody and no one, which have common and possessive cases. In Ukr they are declinable, and pronouns ніякий, нічний have forms of gender and number. In Eng none is used instead of phrase no+noun. In sentences express negation.

27. Eng Reciprocal pronoun (each other, one another)express mutuality, or the activity of two or more persons as the subject and the object of the action. Have the same cases as nouns, and are used in the function of object or attribute. Pepositions are always placed before the first element (for each other). In Ukr are transferred with help of verb+ся.

Ukr defining pronouns (увесь, всякий, кожний, сам, жодний) are used in the role of generalizing qualitative attributes, subjects or objects. Have categories of gender, number and case.Eng generalizing pr. (all, each, either; every+ one, bode, thing) give a generalizing indication of persons, things, properties and circumstances.Eng quantitative pr. (much, many, few, several, enough) may function as pro-nouns, pro-adjectives, pro-numerals, pro-adverbs).Eng contrastive pr. (other, another, otherwise) meaning “not the indicated”.Eng indefinite-personal pr. (one) refers to action or person which is not exactly defined. Is used in function of subject, into Ukr is transferred with help of third person plural verbs (One says – Кажуть..) Has common and possessive cases.

28. In Eng all verbs are subdivided into finite verbs or finites (indicative, conditional, imperative moods) and non-finites or verbids (infinitive, gerund, participle). In Ukr verbs include conjugated verb forms or personal (verbs, participles), and non-conjugated verb forms or non-personal(infinitives, dijepryslivn, forms ending with -но.-то). Personal verbs ere subdivided into two conjugations: 1- verbs in th 3person pl have endings -уть,-ють; 2--ать, -ять.

Properties:1) lex-gram meaning: action or process;

2) stem building el: Eng: suffixes: -ize, -en, -ify; pref: re-, under-, over-, de-, un-. Ukr: suffixes:-ти, -ати, -ува; pref: о-,у-,об-,пере-,з-.postfix: -ся. In Eng verbs can be combined with word-morphemes up, in, out, etc. to form “pharasal verbs”.

3) Gram.categories: aspect, voice (all verb forms), mood, number (conjugated), tence (indicative mood verbs), person, gender (imperative and indicative mood verbs).

4) Combinability: noun (left-subject, right-object), modified by adverbs, adj(verbs of sence perception).

5) Syntactic function: predicate (finities, cojugated), secondaty predication(non-finites).

According to stems: 1) simple (ride); 2) derived (with help of affixes, in both lang mostly with prefixes, soun-interchange, conversion); 3) compound verbs consist of 2 stems(whitewash); 4) composite- verb + lexico-gram word-morpheme (make up).

In Ukr peculiar are reflexive verbs (reflexive proper, indirectly, generally, objectless, reciprocal), and impersonal verbs (of the physical state, mental state, nature phenomena, disasters, existence or availability, success).

According to formal, semantic, functional properties verbs can be subdivided into:

• standart (regular) – build past form with suffix -ed.
• Non-standart (irregular) – with vowel or consonant change, supletivity.
• Notional – concrete lexical meaning, can be used alone.
• Seminotional – not isolatable used to combine or to make gram forms:link, modal verbs.
• Subjective – associated only with the subject(a doer of action)
• objective – associated both with subject and object.
• Transitive – connected with objects directly.
• Intransitive – connected with objects with help of prepositions. (in Ukr перех і неперех)
• terminative – denote actions which can not develop beyond a certain limit.
• Non-terminative – no certain limit to the action(carry).

In eng verb can not function without a subject (it snows), when in Ukr it can (Сніжить).

 

29. The category of person in Ukr is represented with 3member opposemes (ю-єш-є, ємо-єте-ють). Each member of opposition is marked by endings of the 1,2,3 persons in sing and pl. In Eng the category of person is represented with 2member opposemes (work-works, is-are), there is just one ending -s in 3 person sing (Modal verbs do not have even this ending), the verb in plural has no person characteristics. In Ukr the forms of the past tense and conditional mood do not express the category of person, in Eng there is an ending -ed or special stem-building for all persons.

Impersonal verbs denote the action not connected with any doer. In Ukr they are used in the present and future in form of 3person sing, in the past – in form of 3pers sing, neuter gender. They are not used with the subject, so in Enx they are expressed with pronoun it. In Ukr impersonal verbs are of the physical senses (нудить), mental state (сниться), nature phenomena (морозить), disasters, existence or availability, success). In Eng imp.verbs denote only nature phenomena.

 

30. The category of number shows whether the action is associated with one doer or with more than one. In Ukr it is expressed in the forms of 3 pairs of opposition (пишу-пишемо, пишеш-пишете, пише-пишуть). The forms of sing and pl are characterised for Ukr verbs in all 3 moods(ind, imperative, cond). In Ukr the form of 2 person plural  can be used to address one person in a polite form. In Eng the category of number in the present is expressed in the same way as the 3person sing(-s)/more distinctly this category is expressed in the forms of the verb to be (sing -am, is, was; pl – are, were).

The category of gender is not characterised for the Eng.verb. In Ukr it is expressed only by the verb forms of the past tense (йшов, йшла, йшло) and by the conditional mood (йшла б). Gender forms are created with help of suffix в(л), and flections -a (feminine), -o (neuter), zero flexion(masculine).

 

31. The category of aspect shows the character of action, whether the action is taken in progress (continious) or it is simply stated (non-continuous), in Eng it is e system of 2 member opposemes (writes – is writing). In Ukr its also a system of 2 member opposemes represented by verbs of perfective and imperfective aspect (писати-написати). In Eng the category of aspect is closely connected with tense and other categories. But the tense shows the time of action, while the aspect deals with its development. In Eng there are verbs which do not have aspect opposemes: verbs of diverse relations (consist), of physical perception (see), of mental perception (like), of very short acts (jump), link-verbs (look, seem).

In Ukr there can be one-aspect verbs of imperative type (базікати) and one-aspect verbs of perfective type (розговоритися). Verbs of imp.aspect have 3 tense forms (present, pasr, future), and those of perf.aspect- only the past tense forn and the simple tense form of the future tense. Morphological means of the  Ukr aspect form building: 1) prefixation; 2) suffixation(списувати-списати); 3) vowel alteration (вмирати-вмерти); 4) stress shifting (виміряти-виміряти); 5) the use of different stems (брати-взяти). Verbs of imperfective aspect can have 2 forms – synthetic and analitic (писатиму, буду писати). The subtypes of the perfective aspect  in Ukr: 1) the action beginning (заговорити); 2) completed action (поспав); 3) achieving the result of the completed action(написав); 4) the sudden character of action (стукнути); 5) the suddenness of a completed action (штовхонути).

 

32. The categoty of tense shows the relation of the action or state to the moment of speaking. In Ukr the verb has the forms of the present (роблю), the future (робитиму, буду робити), the past (робив) and the pluperfect tense (був робив). The forms of the present, past and future are synthetic ones,  those of the composite future and the pluperfect tense are analytical. In Eng the verb has 16 tenses (4simple, 4 perfect, 4 cont, 4 perf cont). Only in the common aspect the present anf the past tenses are synthetic ones in the affirmative form. In the interrogative and negative forms these tenses, as another tenses are analytical ones. The special tense type is “Future in the past” which denotes the action happening during the time, which was future from the point of view of past moment.

Tense grammemes can be used absolutely and relatively. The tense is absolute if it shows the time of the action in relation to the moment of speech. If it is in relation to some moment in the past or in the future, than the time is used relatively (He will say, he was there).

There are 2 more verb categories: 1) the category of posteriority shows whether the action is posterior according to the moment of speech or to some moment in the past (shall come, should come). 2) the category of order shows whether the action is viewed as prior to (perfect) or irrespective of (non-perfect) other actions (reads-has read).

 

 

33. The Present tense of verbs in Ukr is characteristic only to the verbs of the imperfective aspect(роблю), which are subdivided into 2 conjugations: 1con- the verbs, which in the 3person pl have endings уть(ють) and in the other personal forms the vocal е(є); 2con-the verbs which in the 3 person pl have the endings ать(ять) and in the other personal forms the vocal и(ї). in Engl all the verbs can be used in present tense.

In Eng there are 4 present tenses:

• Present Indefinite can render: the continuous action (sun shines), the action indefinite concerning its duration or completeness (I like you), the action of repeated character (I see her every day), past or future events(similar to ukr) (Tomorrow I go home-завтра я їду додому).
• Present Continuous tense renders the action as the process, which is happening in the moment of speaking. Can also be used in future meaning.
• Present Perfect tense has the relative-tense meaning (I have just written) and the meaning of the action result (I have written). Into Ukr is translated with help of past tense.
• Present Perfect Continuous renders the action as the process maximally close to the moment of speaking. It is rendered into Ukr with help of present tense.

Peculiar feature -”expressive form”- with help of auxiliary verb 'do' (I do want that).

 

34. In ukr we have 2 forms of The Past Tense:

• The Past tense forms are created from base of the infinitive with help of suffix в(л), and flections -a (feminine), -o (neuter), zero flexion(masculine).

• The Plupefect tense is created analytically by combining the past tense form of the verb and the past tense of the auxiliary verb бути(був робив). It is used to denote the action which happened long ago or before the other past action. Is becoming less used in modern Ukr.

In Eng there are 4 past tenses:

• Past indefinite tense denotes the action which happened during the period of time in the past and usually has a completed character. Is formed with help of regular and irregular verbs.
• Past Continuous tense shows the simultaneous course of action with another action or some definite past moment.
• Past Perfect tense shows the action happened before another past action or before some definite moment in the past. Shows the completed  character of action, when the Ukr Pluperfect – the uncompleted one.
• Past Perfect Continuous renders the course of the action from its beginning till the end in the past.

Peculiar feature -”expressive form”- with help past tense form of auxiliary verb 'do' (I did want that).

 

35. In Ukr forms of the future tense are created differently. Verbs of perfective aspect do not have the form of the present tense and form future with help of personal endings of present tense(прочитаю). Verbs of imperfective aspect have 2 forms of future tense: 1) analytical (бути + infinitive) 2) synthetic (adding to the infinitive base of conjugated verbs endings му, меш, ме, мемо, мете, муть.

In eng all future tense verb forms are formed analytically. There are 4 future types: