Basic units of language and speech

• Future Indefinite tense is formed with help of auxiliary verbs shall and will combined with the infinitive expressing the lexical meaning of the construction. Can render single or repeated action.
• The Future Continuous tense renders the action as a process that will take place during some limited period of time in the future and is formed by combination of the auxiliary verbs will be/shall be and the present participle of the verb expressing the lexical meaning.
• The Future Perfect tense renders the  action that should finish before a definite moment in the future, and is formed with help of the auxiliary verb 'to have' in future indefinite and past participle of the verb.
• The Future in the Past renders the action that should take place after some definite past moment and is created with the help of auxiliary verbs should and would and the infinitive form of the verb. Those forms are usually used in complex sentences, when the sequence of tenses takes place. That means that the predicate of the subordinate clause renders the action in relation not to the moment of speech but  to some moment in the past (He said, she liked flowers). In Ukr we have another usage of such forms (Він сказав, що вона любить квіти).

36. The category of voice shows whether the subject performs the action (active voice) or whether the action is directed towards the object, but is not performed by this object (passive voice). It is the system of 2 member opposemes (to do-to be done, doing-being done). The active voice in Eng can be regarded as unmarked, and the passive voice is formed with the combination of the verb “to be” in the corresponding tense form and the gram.morpheme of Participle2(to be done). According to Zhluktenko, there is one more voice in Eng- reflecsive voice, which shows that the action is centred upon the doer of the action himself (He hurt himself). Reciprocal voice is also considered, and is formed with help of each other, one another.

In Ukr there are 2 voices: active (includes all the transitive verbs) and passive (verbs usually have the postfix -ся: будуватися). The separate group includes reflexive verbs, which olso have postfix -ся, but render the action the object of which is the acting person (вмиватися). Ukr verbal suffix -ся has different meanings: the passive state, the reflexive, the reciprocal, the active-non-object (кусається), the passive-non-object (бється). Some Ukr verbs have only the reflexive form, and ere not used without suffix -ся (сміятися), some can not be combined with this suffix (сісти).

There verbs which don't have the viose opposites (lack, last).

 

37. The Passive voice renders action that is directed towards the object, but is not performed by this object. In Eng it is formed with the combination of the verb “to be” in the corresponding tense form and the gram.morpheme of Participle2(to be done). The Passive voice renders 2 meanings: of state passiveness (The work is done-Робота зроблена) and of passiveness of the action (Pобота робиться). In eng there are following types of passive constractions:1) with direct-transitive meaning of the verb (also in Ukr)- The dor was opened. 2)with the indirect-transitive meaning of the verb (abcent in Ukr) – She eas given a pan.3) with indirect transitiveness with the prepositional form of government. -He was sent fot. 4) with not a transitive meaning of the verb but its circumstantial relations. - The room has not been lived in.

In Ukr the passiveness of the state is expressed analytically with help of the verb бути in the corresponding tense ant the Pasr participle form of the verb (був написаний). It also can be expressed with non-personal indeclinable forms in -но, то (зроблено). The passiveness of the action is rendered in a synthetic way be verb forms with the suffix -ся (розробляється).

 

38. The Reflexive voice is rendered in Eng analytically with help of the transitive verb and the reflexive pronoun of the corresponding person and number. Some linguists deny the existing of such voice but e.g. the sentence He washed himself can not be transformed into Himself was washed. Reflexive state verb forms can have: 1) the proper reflexive meaning (they show that the subject is the objec of the action itself: I wash myself) 2) medium-reflexive meaning (the action is centred upon the subject: I enjoy myself).

In Ukr the reflexive state is formed synthetically by adding th affix -ся to transitive verbs. They are subdivided into: 1) proper reflexive (вмиватися); 2) indirectly  reflexive (збиратися); 3) reciprocal-reflexive (листуватися); 4) general reflexive (сердитися); 5) active-non-object (кусатися); 6) passive-qualitative (гнутися); 7) reflexive passive (уявлятися).

 

39. The category of mood shows the relation of the action to the reality from the speaker's point of view. In both lang there are verb forms of the Indicative mood(дійсний), which shows the action as the one taking place in reality (He writes-Він пише), the Imperative mood (наказовий), which represents the action as a command or request(Write!-Пиши!), and the Conditional mood (умовний), which presents the action as imaginary(He would have written,if..-Він би написав, якщо..). The imperative and conditional mood represent the action as imaginary, so the notion of time is discarded.

 

40. The Indicative mood presents an action as a fact of reality and includes all the categories of the verb (person, number, tense and state). It is also connected with the category of tense and is expressed by the forms of present, past and future tenses.

The Imperative mood in both lang expresses the action as a command, request. In Eng in relation to 2person sing and pl it is formed with help of the infinitive without the particle “to” not rendering the category of number. In relation to 1 and 3 persons sing and pl it is formed analytically with help of the verb “let”and the infinitive of the notional verb (Let me/us/him/them do this). The peculiarity of Eng imp.mood is the expressive form adding the verb “Do” (Do call me tomorrow). In Ukr the imp.mood is built from the base of the present tense:1) for the 2person sing with the ending -и (пиши) or without endings(встань); 2) for the 1 person pl with the ending -імо or -мо; 3) for the 2 person pl with the endings -іть or -те. The 3 person sing and pl can also be formed analytically with the particle хай(нехай): Хай зробить. In Ukr there are also used intimate or unofficial forms, created by adding particles -но,-бо to the common form if imp.mood (скажи-но). In Ukr the infinitive of the verb is also used with imperative meaning(Зробити!).

 

 

 

 

41. The Conditional mood presents the action as imaginary, desirable in both lang. In Ukr it is formed analytically by adding the particle би (after the vocal б), which can be separated from the verb in sentence, to the form of the past tense or the infinitive of the conjugated verb (зробив би). This form is atemporal and can be referred to any time. In Ukr is also used the peculiar form with the particle бодай with the meaning of the wish of great intercity (бодай би вам добре було!). Into Eng meanings of cond.mood are rendered with help of: 1) synthetic forms: be, have (for the 3 person without ending -s, as Present Subjunctive form); were (for all the persons as Past Subjunctive form) 2) analytical forms built by using auxiliary verbs should and would and infinitive.  3) combinations of may(might), can(could) with infinitives of notional verbs. Unlike Ukr, the Eng cond.mood can express the category of tense: analytical forms should/would + Indefinite Infinitive and Past Indefinite denote the unreal action that could happen in the present or future. Forms should/would + Perfect Infinitive and Past Perfect denote the unreal action that could happen in the past. The cond.mood is closely connected with the structure of the complex sentence. In both lang forms of conditional mood have the category of state (був би зроблений, should be done) and aspect (would be doing, робила б, зробила б).

 

 (42) Non-finite forms of the verb: general characteristics.

The system of NFV of Ukr. & Eng. Verbs differ. The only common verbal is the Infinitive. The Eng. Lang. besides possesses the Gerund, which does not have its counterpart in Ukrainian. The 3^rd verbal form in Eng. lang. – participle.

1.their lexico-grammatical meaning is of dual natire. The verbal meaning of “action, process” is presented as some kind of “substance” (for gerunds, infinitives) or “quality” (participles)

--- going there put an end to her anxiety (gerund GOING denoting an action, presents it at the same time as a substance)

2.verbals have peculiar morphemes (eng. – ing, -ed, -en, to; in Ukr. – ти, -ий)

3.there is duality in verbids’  combinability. They form connectios with adverbs, nouns, pronouns (denoting actions) like fitite verbs

---one could see that without his even speaking )gerund preceeded by a preposition & a possessive pronoun like a noun)

4.their syntactical functions are different from those of the finite verbs, they are rarely used as predicatives, but they are used in almost any other function in the sentence.

(43) Infinitives in English & Ukr. Language.

The eng. infinitive is characterized by the word-morpheme “to” can represent the whole analytical word.

Similar to other word-morphemes, “to” can be separated from the rest of the analytical word by some other words – split infinitive (he will fully appreciate. They asked him to personally intervene)

The presence or abence of this word-morpheme depends on the context of the infinitive in speech, thus the infinitive is used without its word-morpheme “to” after some verbs.

In ukr. The infinitive is char-ed by the following typical stem-building morphemes: suffixes –ти(-ть) (плакати, робить), -ну, -ува(-юва), -а, -и, -і(ї) + -ти (стукнути, мандрувати, гостювати)

Popular phenomenon in Ukr. – the diminutive meanings

The grammatical categories of voice, aspect in English. There are no passive forms on the English infinitives of the continuos aspect.

The paradigm of the ukr inf. Is characterized by the general verbs categories of the transitiveness-intransitiveness, aspect & voice (стояти-стати, укривати-укрити, будувати-бути збудованим)

From the whole system of forms only 2 of the active & passive state of the common aspect have their correspondence in ukr – to ask –питати, to be asked -бути запитаним.

Its peculiar combinability resembling that of the verb and partly that of the noun. Like a finite verb the infinitive is associated: a)with adverbs in both lang (to speak fluently); b)with nouns & pronouns denoting the doer or the object of some action in eng (we expect you to bring the book)

Syntactic usage and features of the infinitive – can be used as the attribute of modal character; has the ability to enter a # of syntactic constructions (complex obj, complex subj…); can be easily used as the nominal (predicative) member of the compound nominal predicate after the linking verb “to be” In ukr. Can not be! (the task of the boy was to open the door – завдання хлопця полягало у тому, щоб відчинити двері.)

In eng passive & the perfect forms are widely used after the verbs of the incomplete predication (he only asked to be alone. Він тільки просив, щоб його залишили на самоті). In eng the inf can render predicate relations to some names bound with it in the sentence. In ukr. The noun or the pronoun which denote the doer of the action can be used before the inf or be absent (я наказав (йому) зачинити вікно). In colloquial English the inf can be used as the predicate without the linking verb (I, do it! Never!)

 

(44) The English participle versus Ukr дієприкметник і дієприслівник

The English Participle is chara-ed by complex system of forms, in particular: participle 1 or pres participle in active & in passive states, participle 2 or part participle (finished) & perfect participle in active & in passive states (having finished)

The active participle 1 (swimming) can have the attributive & the circumstantial meanings – дієприкметник of the present tense (плаваючий) or to the verbal descriptive attributive construction (той хто (який) плаває) or to дієприслівник (плаваючи)

The passive participle 1 (being asked) corresponds to the ukr verbal descriptive construction (коли мене запитали) & seldom to дієприслівник (будучи запитаним)

The participle 2 has attributive meaning – ukr дієприкметник finished – закінчений

Perfect participle used with the circumstantial meaning – ukr. Дієприслівник of the past tense or to the verbal descriptive attributive construction (having finished, закінчивши, коли (після того як) я … він закінчив)

Ukr. дієприкметник – participle = have category of state, active participle render the characteristic feature caused by their carrier (сяюче обличчя) in modern ukr active participles of the present tense with suffixes –уч-(-юч-) і –ач-(-яч-) ростучий are used rather rarely. Active participles of the past tense of the perfective aspect are formed with the help of the suffix –л- осиротілий, зітлілий. Passive participles of the present tense are not formed in modern ukr, in their meaning the reconsidered forms of the passive participles of the past tense, formed from the transitive verbs of the imperfective aspect are used often: обговорюване  питання. Passive participles of the past tense r formed with the help of the suffixes –т-, -н-, -ен-

Active participles poit toward the character of some action object & formed from the stem of the rpesent tense of the transitive & intransitive verbs of the imperfective aspect by adding suffixes –ач- -яч- -уч- -юч-.

Passive participles render quality of the action upon which the action is directed.

Eng participle 2 is mostly used wuith the nound (my forgotten friend). The non-perfect active participle may modify both nouns & verbs (his smiling eyes). Eng participles like ukr may sometimes develop into adjectives – standing water – стояча вода

Ukr дієприслівник.

Дієприслівник of the imperfective aspect of the present tense r formed from the base of the present tense of the verb of the imperfective aspect with the help of the suffixes –учи(сь), -ючи(сь), -ачи, -ячи(пишучи, співаючи)

Дієприслівник of the perfective aspect (of the past) formed directly from the form of the masculine gender singular of the past tense of the perfective aspect with the help of the suffixes –ши(сь), -вши: приніс-принісши

In eng these дієприслівник correpondes 1)perfect participle of the active state (having finished our work, we went home) 2) participle 1 of the active state (he stood leaning against the wall) 3)gerund with the preposition

 

(45) The English gerund

The G has features: its dual lexico-grammatical meaning of “an action partially viewed as a substance”; the typical group morpheme –ing; the grammatical category of voice; Has a category of tense (the present and the perfect forms). The category of aspect of gerund is connected with the category of the tense & is subordinated to this category.

The combinability resembling that of the vern & that of the noun (the G is associated with prepositions, with possessive pronouns, nouns in the possessive case – the district is justified in blindly ignoring the federal land)

The G like the infinitive combines verbal & noun features. The G may be preceded by a preposition (she thought of going there)

Very often the doer is not clear as in I LIKE SINGING. Typical syntactic functions of the G are those of subject, complement, attribute …. (his returning so soon surprised his family)

Being used in the sentence as a separate word, the G fulfills syntactic functions more characteristic of a noun: functions of the subject, object, prepositional circumstances & attributes (seeing is believing)

 

(46) Adverb as a part of a speech: gen characteristics

Features: lexico-grammatical meaning of “qualitative, quantative or circumstantial chara-cs of actions, states or qualities”; typical stem-building affixes as in quick-ly, side-ways, clock-wise, a-shore…in ukr adverbs adverbs are formed by adding the preposition по- (по-доброму), particles –то, -от, -таки, -будь, -небудь, казна-(десь-то, як-от, коли-небудь), particles аби-, ані-, чи-, що-, не-, ні- becoming prefixes are written with adverbs together (абикуди, абияк, чимало, щодесь); the grammatical category of degree of comparison; its unilateral combinability with verbs, adjectives, adverbs, less regularly with adlinks & nouns speaking of eng adverbs. The syntactic functions of adverbial complement or adverbial modifier.

Subclasses: qualitative (loudly, quickly – to show quality – to show qualityof the action – suffix –ly); quantitative (very, rather, too, nearly); circumstantial adverbs – denote various circumstances attending an action: a)adv ot time & frequency (yesterday, be4, again) b)of place & direction (upstairs, behind)

In ukr the subclasses of adverbs are presented in difining & circumstantial. Defining adv –  qualitative (добре зробив, весело заспівали); quantitative (дуже весела людина); adv of manner (крутився колесом)

Circumstantial adv include adv that denote different outside space & time circumstances (вгорі, знизу)

According to their origin & the way of formation – primary (created so long ago that different to define their primary form – тут, там, завжди, тоді) & Secondary.

 

(47)Degrees of comparison of adverbs- like adjectives.

In eng the syntactic way of degrees formation is characteristic only of 1 syllable adverbs (fast, hard, soon). & some 2syllable ones (early, slowly, often). The majority of adverbs form their degrees of C analytically (clearly-more clearly-most clearly) in ukr the syntactic way is prevailing. In both languages is a suppletive way of degrees formation: добре-краще-найкраще, well-better-best.

There are comparable & non-comparable.

 

 

 

 

 

(48) Words of the category of state (statives or adlinks)

Certain class of words like ASLEEP, ALIVE, AFLOAT which is characterized by: the lexico-grammatical meaning of “state” (he is asleep); the productive prefix a-: swim-aswim, shiver-ashiver; peculiar combinability: words associated almost exclusively with link-verbs:to be alive, to fall asleep; the main syntactic function of a predicative complement.

The category of state in ukr – following groups: words expressing the mental & physical state of a person or any living being altogether (боязко, приємно, чутно, жаль); words denoting the nature state (темно, зелено); words expressing the state of the surrounding or its evaluation (гарно, пусто, тихо, рано); words expressing the state with some modal connotation (треба, слід, можна, доцільно)

According to Kulyk the category of state in ukr is all the time renewed. Features of these groups and the difference from eng – they r used mainly in impersonal sentences, whereas eng in personal; they do not explain any words in the sentence; ukr words of the categpory of state in –o, -e can have the forms of comparison degrees (весело-веселіше).