Лексическая транформация в переводе

Table of Contents:

I. Introduction.          

II. Translation of Word.        

2.1. Lexical Correspondences.          

2.2. Translation of the Words that don’t have Direct Lexical Correspondences in the Russian language.           

III. Translation of Connected Word-Combinations (Phraseological Units).          

3.1. Characteristics of English Figurative Phraseology.      

3.2. Methods of Figurative Phraseology Translation.          

3.2.1. Using of Phraseological Equivalent.  

3.2.2. Using of Phraseological Variant (Analogue).

3.2.3. Replication of Phraseological Units.  

3.2.4. Descriptive Translation.          

3.2.5. Translation of Specific National Phraseological Units.         

IV. Lexical Transformations and Methods of Creation of Contextual Substitutes.          

4.1. Kinds of Lexical Transformations.        

4.1.1. Additions. Semantic additions are inadmissible in translation.        

4.1.2. Omissions.       

4.1.3. Substitutes.      

4.2. Methods of Creating of Contextual Substitutes.          

4.2.1. Method of Concretization.     

4.2.2. Method of Generalization.     

4.2.3. Method of antonymic translation.      

4.2.4. Method of Compensation.      

4.2.5. Method semantic development.         

4.2.6. Method of complete interpretation.   

V. Conclusion.          

List of used literature:           

Lexical Problems of Literary Translation. 

 

I. Introduction.

In process of translation grammatical and lexical phenomena are taken in as inseparably connected. Only consisting of a sentence functions of a word are discovered and their particular meaning is determined. A word keeps its semantic identity standing in different contexts. The context determines a proper meaning of a used word in every concrete case but all possible meanings of words are present constantly in a translator’s mind. In process of translation a translator has to confront with close to meaning English and Russian words to decide if he can use one or another word in translation.

In order to confront correctly English and Russian lexical units in translation of a concrete text a translator must know basic types of similar comparisons and which factors should be considered to choose a final variant of translation.

Most of words both in the Russian and English languages are polysemantic. Different meanings of a word are connected between each other and as a rule combined around common basic datum value. Semantics of a word reveals itself in the context, depends on lexical surroundings of the word. Therefore, for discovering exact meaning a word should be considered not isolated but in connection with other words and sometimes more large context is needed.

A notion about translation as a simple substitution of words of one language with words-equivalents from another one is mistaken as most of words are polysemantic and the whole system of the polysemantic word can’t coincide with the system of a word of another language. Cases of equivalent correspondences of polysemantic words haven’t been registered. Only terms and the words that by their nature are close to them can have equivalents. These kinds of words in language are no more then 30%. Since terms belong to a special vocabulary a proportion of the words-equivalents in news materials and fictions reduces still more. It should be taken into account that sometimes conditions of the context force to refuse even equivalent correspondence. A task for a translator consists in finding of variant correspondences and creating of contextual substitutes in those cases when variant correspondences can not be used by the terms of the context.

Thus, a work of a translator on transformation of ST into TT implies both a skill to use ready formulas and regularities that have been determined by practice of translation and solving of creative tasks.

The aim of this term paper is to show lexical problems of translation on the material of translation the novel “Theatre”  by Somerset Maugham. For this it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

1. To show in what way translation of the words that have (and don’t have) lexical correspondences in the Russian language is realized.

2. To analyse characteristics and methods of translation of English figurative phraseology.

3. To give a notion of lexical transformation and its kinds.

4. Describe methods of creation of contextual substitutes.  

 

II. Translation of Word.

2.1. Lexical Correspondences. 

First of all a translation of a word starts from an attempt to discover in the Russian language the word that is coincident in the meaning with given one. There is a good deal of the Russian words which have a close meaning to English words. In the theory of translation that sort of words is named lexical or lexicographic correspondence.

Two basic types of semantic relations between words of the English and Russian languages are discovered:

1. A meaning of an English word corresponds completely to a meaning of a Russian one. That kind of correspondence implies that in all (or almost all) cases of using of an English word it will be conveyed in translation with this Russian word. Such permanent equivalent correspondences we will name equivalents.

For examples, English words London, cypress, twenty, Monday, March have equivalent correspondences in the Russian language: Лондон, кипарис, двадцать, понедельник, март.

Terms (not all), proper names, place-names, numerals, names of days of the week and months, etc. are also represented by equivalents in another language. There is not a lot of equivalent correspondences in languages as most of words are polysemantic. As a rule, polysemantic words don’t have one equivalent; an equivalent can have just single meaning of these words. For example, figure – фигура; цифра.

2. Meanings of several Russian words correspond partially to the meaning of an English word, i.e. this word has several lexical correspondences, similar by meaning. This type of correspondences is named variant correspondence.

A skill of a translator to a great extent consists in the ability to find a number of correspondences to English word and choose the variant that is more appropriate by the terms of the context. Let’s take, for example, the follow sentence from the novel:

# He said they could not afford to let sentiment stand in the way of business. (Chapter 7, page 61).

A dictionary gives 4 meanings of the word sentiment:

1) чувство, отношение,  настроение, мнение;

2) сентиментальность, сантименты;

3) мысль;

4) тост.

First meaning of the four suits most of all. There are variant correspondences in the first meaning among that a translator has to choose most closely apt one. The translator of the novel chose the word чувство and translated this sentence in that way: Он сказал, что они не могут позволить чувствам мешать делу. (Стр. 52).

Very often a sequence of lexical variant correspondences given in a dictionary doesn’t satisfy a translator. He/she can’t make use of them, for instance, for stylistic reasons. In that case a translator prolongs a sequence of lexical correspondences. A word in particular context can take on special significance that is not constant but arises only in given context.

However, contextual meanings of words, though they are not constant, are not casual. They are not in dictionaries but there is always bond between a contextual meaning and a basic object-logical one. So a translator can “throw a bridge” from the meaning given in a dictionary to the originated contextual one. For example:

# We’ve had a couple of duds. The next play’s bound to be all right and then we shall get back all we’ve lost and a packet into the bargain. (Ch.9, p.77).

A dictionary gives the following meanings of the word dud:

1) лохмотья, рваная одежда;

2) никчемный человек или  вещь;

3) фальшивая, поддельная  вещь;

4) неразорвавшийся снаряд.

No one of the indicated in the dictionary meanings of this word suits for given context but it can be guessed by the next sentence. It means failure as between dud and failure the associative consecution can be built. So the word dud has the contextual meaning, the translator gives it with a mark “here” and translates: Ну, было у нас два провала. А следующая пьеса пойдет на ура, и мы с лихвой возместим все убытки. (С.64). 

 

2.2. Translation of the Words that don’t have Direct Lexical Correspondences in the Russian language. 

Many English words don’t have any direct correspondences among Russian lexical units. They are neologisms, the words which express specific notions and realities, little known names. Practice of translation has some ways of conveying of these words:

1) transliteration;

2) descriptive translation;

3) replication.

1. When a translator has to convey an English word which doesn’t have any correspondence in the Russian language he can try to recreate a form of the English word in translation in order to bring a lexical unit into the Russian language that corresponds to the translated English word.

A foreign form in translation can be conveyed by two ways: transliteration and transcription. Transliteration is based on conveying of graphical image of an English word, i.e. English letters. Transcription is based on phonetic principle, i.e. on conveying of the sounds of an English word by Russian letters. The last way conveys sounding of an English word more exactly as it proceeds from not English spelling but from its real sounding.

# Mrs. De Vries had seen Julia act in Middlepool. She gave parties so that the young actors might get to know managers, and asked them to stay at her grand house near Guildford, where they enjoyed a luxury they had never dreamed of. (Ch. 8, p.68).

Миссис де Фриз уже видела Джулию в Миддлпуле. Она устроила несколько званых вечеров, чтобы  познакомить молодых актеров  с антрепренерами, и пригласила их в свой великолепный дом возле  Гилдфорда, где они окунулись  в роскошь, которая никогда им не снилась. (С.57).

2. There is not such a word that couldn’t be translated into other language at least descriptively, in other words, by extended combination of words of given language. Usually, entire explanation of a meaning of a word doesn’t keep within the frameworks of TT, and a translator has to reduce to a minimum a translation-explanation, give only a part of the description or to footnote. Here are the examples from the novel:

# Evie was Julia’s dresser and maid. … She was a cockney, … (Ch.10, p.83).

Эви была горничная и костюмерша Джулии. … Она была кокни. (С.69).

The English word cockney is conveyed by not only transliteration but descriptively. The translator makes a foot-note: Кокни – уроженец Ист-Энда (рабочий квартал Лондона); речь кокни отличается особым нелитературным произношением и грамматическими неправильностями.

# “You can get back with the milk,” he’d said. (Ch.13, p.122). – Ты сможешь вернуться рано утром, когда станут развозить молоко. (С.96).

For English reader this sentence is natural and clear because it is an English tradition to drive milk in mornings but for TR it will be strange without any explanation. 

 

3. For conveying of the lexica that doesn’t have any correspondences in TL replication is also used. It is creation of a new word, a word-combination or a compound word for notation of a corresponding object on bases of the elements which exist materially in a language. This word is named calque (backbencher - заднескамеечник, sky-scraper - небоскреб, influence - влияние). Here are the examples from the text:

# I might be squint-eyed and hump-backed. (Ch.7, p.60). – Я могла бы быть кривой (косоглазой) и горбатой. (С.52).

# She felt like a high-born damsel, … (Ch.6, p.58). – Она ощущала себя высокородной девицей, …(С.50).

Replication of set expressions is widely used (people of good will – люди доброй воли, on the brink of war – на грани войны):

# When Julia and Michael had decided to try their luck in London… (Ch.8, p.68). - Когда Джулия и Майкл решили попытать счастья в Лондоне, … (С.57).

# They drove the rest of the journey in stormy silence. (Ch.8, p.71). – Остаток пути прошел в грозовом молчании. (С.59).

Replication is applied sometimes on conveying some place-names (Cape of Good Hope – мыс Доброй Надежды, St. Lawrence River – река Св. Лаврентия):

# They had a small flat at Buckingham Gate…  (Ch.7, p.60). - У них была небольшая квартирка на Бэкингем-гейт… (С.52).

# When Michael went away to the war Dolly pressed her to come and live in her house in Montagu Square, … (Ch.8, p.68). - Когда Майкл ушел на войну, Долу настаивала на том, чтобы Джулия переехала к ней, в ее дом на Монтегью-сквер, …(С.57). 

 

III. Translation of Connected Word-Combinations (Phraseological Units).

3.1. Characteristics of English Figurative Phraseology.

The predominance of importance of the whole over importance of components is a character of phraseological units (further PU), i.e. connected word-combinations. Therefore, a translator has to translate a PU as a single whole. PUs are subdivided into figurative and not figurative.

The main task for a translator in translating of not figurative PUs is to keep up the norms of compatibility of words in the Russian language as quite often influence of English compatibility leads to literalisms (to make a sacrifice – приносить жертву, to have a good sleep – хорошо выспаться, to pay attention – обращать внимание).

# …took the matter in his own hands. (Ch.8, p.76). – …взял бразды правления в свои руки. (С.62).

# He took no notice of the flippant rejoinder. (Ch.2, p.23). – Джимми пропустил мимо ушей легкомысленный ответ. (С.26).

# Julia spent a happy morning in bed reading the Sunday papers. (Ch.8, p.71).

Джулия с удовольствием  провалялась все утро в постели, просматривая воскресные газеты. (С.59).

Cardinal problems in the field of translation of set expressions are connected with translating of figurative phraseology which imparts vivacity, brilliance and pliancy to language. The task for a translator is to convey into the Russian language not only the meaning of a PU but its figurativeness and expressiveness.

# Julia was a damned good sort and clever, as clever as a bagful of monkeys; you could talk to her about anything in the world. (Ch.8, p.75).

Джулия славная женщина  и умна, как сто чертей, с ней  можно поговорить обо всем на свете. (С.62).

As a rule, an English PU has a lot of variant correspondences in the Russian language and every time a translator has to make a choice.

# She laid it on with a trowel. (Ch.8, p.75). (Lay it on with a trowel – грубо льстить, делать ч-л очень грубо, утрировать, хватить через край).

Больше она не боялась  хватить через край. (С.62). 

 

3.2. Methods of Figurative Phraseology Translation. 

Best way of translating of a figurative PU is using of a correspondence. These correspondences can be equivalent and variant.  

 

3.2.1. Using of Phraseological Equivalent. Phraseological equivalent is such a figurative PU in TL which entirely corresponds to one in SL by meaning and stylistic and which is based on the same image. To this group belong international expressions. They are in most of Europe languages and have common origin. Usually, they bear biblical-mythological or literary character (sword of Damocles – Дамоклов меч, to cross the Rubicon – перейти Рубикон, to shed crocodile tears – лить крокодиловы слезы).

# I believer you’re prouder of your family than of looking lake a Greek god. (Ch.3, p.30). Мне кажется, ты больше гордишься своей семьей, чем тем, что похож на греческого бога. (С.31).

# Then, shark naked, she skipped on to the bed, stood up on it for a moment, like Venus rising from the waves, … (Ch.11, p.105). – Затем, абсолютно голая, вскочила на кровать, постояла на ней минуту, как Венера, рожденная из пены, … (С.84).

# She was as strong as a horse and never tired…  (Ch.11, p.92). – Она была сильна, как лошадь, и никогда не уставала, … (С.75).

# “Poor lamb, he must be as poor as a church mouse.”  (Ch.11, p.101). – “Ах ты, ягненочек! Видно, беден, как церковная мышь.” (С.82).

There are two kinds of equivalents: absolute and relative. Absolute equivalents of set expressions coincide with an original in every respect: grammatically, lexically and stylistically (to cast a glance – бросить взгляд, the bitter truth – горькая правда, to play with fire – играть с огнем, to read between lines – читать между строк).

# The strange thing was that when she looked into her heart… (Ch.18, p.185). - И вот что самое странное: заглянув в свое сердце, … (С.142).

# …she realized that it would be a bitter blow to his pride… (Ch.8, p.75). - …она понимала, каким это будет для него жестоким ударом по самолюбию,…(С.62).

Relative equivalents of set expressions have grammatical or lexical differences from an original though they entirely coincide by meaning and stylistic (grass widow – соломенная вдова, to kill the goose that lays the golden eggs – убить курицу, несущую золотые яйца).

# Of course some of those Middlepool manufacturers were rolling in money,… (Ch.3, p.36). - Конечно, некоторые из мидллпульских фабрикантов просто купаются в золоте,… (С.35).

# …that she was head over ears in love with him. (Ch.4, p.40). - …что она прямо по уши влюблена в ее сына. (С.38).

# He hankered for compliments…They were food and drink to him. (Ch.9, p.82). – Хлебом его не корми – только скажи, как он хорош. (С.67). 

 

3.2.2. Using of Phraseological Variant (Analogue). There is a few figurative PUs in the English and Russian languages which coincide with both meaning and figurativeness. More often a translator has to use a Russian PU that has a similar meaning but based on another image (to work one’s fingers to the bone – работать, не покладая рук, to hit the bird in the eyes – попасть в точку, on foot’s horse – на своих двоих).

# …he looked every inch a soldier. (Ch.7, p.63). - …он выглядел военным до кончиков ногтей. (С.54).

# You can twist her round your little finger. (Ch.8, p.69). – А ты можешь из нее веревки вить. (С.58)

# Gosh, I’m going down like a barrel of oysters. (Ch.4, p.41) – Черт возьми, все идет как по маслу! (С.38).

# It was the only chink in his armour. (Ch.9, p.82). – Это была его ахиллесова пята. (С.68).

 

3.2.3. Replication of Phraseological Units. To keep figurativeness of an original in translation of a PU that has neither equivalent nor analogue in the Russian language sometimes a translator uses replication or literal transmission of the image which is in English PU. It is possible if the received expression is taken in by TR easily and naturally, in compliance with norms of the Russian language (liars must have good memories – лжецам нужна хорошая память, love me, love my dog – любишь меня, люби и мою собаку).