Лекции по "Политологии"

- Conservatism and neoconservatism. Conservatism (the term has used for the first time François Shatobrian [1768-1848] in the beginning of XIX century) Represents the double spiritual phenomenon. On the one hand, it is psychological installation, the style of thinking connected with domination of inertia and a habit, certain vital temperament, the system of guarding consciousness preferring former system of board, irrespective of its purposes and the maintenance. On the other hand, conservatism is an and corresponding model of behaviour in the politician and life in general, and a special ideological position with the philosophical basis, containing known reference points and principles of political participation, the relation to the state, a social order and associating with certain political actions, parties, the unions. Reaction of Zhozefa де Mestra (1753-1821), Lui де Bonalda (1754-1840), Edmunda Berk (1729-1797) on Great French revolution of XVIII century became the precondition of occurrence of these base representations Caused in founders of conservatism of thought about противоестественности conscious transformation of social usages. Conservatism, thus, is the ideological and political doctrine focused on preservation and maintenance of historically developed forms of the state and public life, in particular its valuable foundations embodied in a family, national features, religion, the property.

Conservatives ХIХ started with century a full priority of a society over the person: “people pass as a shade, but the general welfare” (E.Berk) is eternal. In their opinion, freedom of the person was defined by its duties before a society, possibility to adapt to its requirements, and the main point about transformations to a society was reduced to spiritual transformation of the person as past preservation in the present should be considered as a moral imperative before the future generations. The system of views of conservatives was based on a continuity priority before innovations, on a firmness recognition a natural way of the developed order of the things, given over hierarchy of human community, and also the corresponding moral principles underlying a family, religion and the property.

In first half 70th years ХХ century conservatism has turned to neoconservatism. Its most known representatives Irvin Kristol, Deniel Bell, Zbignev Bzhezinsky have formulated a number of the ideas which have become by the answer to an economic crisis of that time, for expansion of influence of ideas of John Keynes (1883-1946), mass youth protest movements. In particular, neoconservatism began to recognise that only market relations conduct to real development of a society and the person; that freedom and equality are incompatible; that classical democracy is impracticable or harmful, in this connection it is necessary to combine in public life democracy with the power of elite; what is the right of the person is the right to have the property and freely to dispose of it; that the state has the limited right of intervention in economic life; that conservatives should head scientific and technical progress of the present.

- Social democratic ideology. It the roots leaves at the time of II Internatsionala (1889 - 1914) and is connected with Edward Bernstein's (1850-1932) creativity, Charles Kautsky (1854-1938), etc. Unlike K.Marx and its followers, Bernstein denied inevitability of wreck of capitalism and any communication of arrival of a socialism with this wreck. The socialism as this theorist considered, is not reduced to replacement of a private property public. The way by a socialism is a search new “companionable modes of production” in the conditions of peace development of capitalist economy and political democracy.“ Ultimate goal - anything, movement - all ”- such became the slogan of a reformist socialism. Its basic political ideas consisted in the following: negation of any dictatorship as forms of the political power; adherence to principles of democratic parliamentarism; the account of political pluralism and orientation to a consensus at the decision of the major problems; a priority of peace means of achievement of the socialist purposes; participation of the state in regulation of economy and development of market mechanisms; fidelity of the concept of social security of workers of weights; orientation to peaceful co-existence of the various states and their sufficient safety.

Social democrats in the western countries, being in power or influencing the power, in many respects promoted democratisation of the societies, expansion and fastening of the rights and freedom of workers. And that historical dispute which within more than 100 years was conducted among themselves by social democrats and communists, meanwhile it is possible to consider solved in favour of social democracy;

- Ideology of anarchism. The modern anarchism represents set enough diverse political trends, moods and the orientations, making certain impact on world political process. Max Shtirner (1805-1856), Michael Aleksandrovich Bakunin (1814-1876), Peter Alekseevich Kropotkin (1842-1921), George Sorel (1847-1922) were ancestors of anarchism, etc. the Common feature of all forms of anarchism is representation about the state as the basic source of harm in a society, and its elimination, destruction - as the main condition of radical perfection of social relations. Anarchists also negatively concern political means and struggle tools, including to parties, the organisations as their activity concentrates round influence problems on the government or its gains;

- технократизм in political sphere appears as set of theories and the methods of interpretation based on them and decisions of the political problems which are starting with confidence what exactly the technician and its evolution has solving influence on definition of concrete shape of political systems. Evolution технократизма as political direction is connected with T.Veblenom, the American economist and the sociologist who has put forward idea of "revolution of engineers” - transition in their hands of the power not only on manufacture, but also in a society where the traditional policy turns in техновластие. Arisen in 70th years of the XX-th century the theory of a postindustrial society focused attention on such phenomena, as introduction of computer systems and technologies, active use of electronic technics in manufacture, a life, management, communication and formation. The theory of a postindustrial society departs from many traditional postulates технократизма.

V. In modern Russia there is a crystallisation of ideologies, preferences and formation bipolar (or bipolar) ideological system - liberalism on one pole and communism to social democratism in its various forms - on other. Centrist orientations remain till now rather inexpressive. The basic groups of political ideologies in the Russian Federation look as follows:

Demokratichesko-liberal, supporting continuation of radical market reforms in the western spirit (its adherents consider itself to 20 % of interrogated citizens);

National patriotic or ideology of "Russian nationalists”, offering to the supporters certain independent “Russian way” developments (its supporters consider itself to 10 % interrogated);

Kommunistichesko-patriotic ideology of supporters of a socialism, its adherents believe itself to 20 % interrogated;

Moods of "centrism" are shown by the people who are not supporting the extremely right and left extremist groupings, in polls they occupy 17-20 %. It is that part of the electorate, which else waits for occurrence of the ideas, capable to lead to the power of representatives of middle class.

Interaction of these groups of ideologies on political space of Russia forms a phenomenon known in a science as “an ideological discourse”. In polemic of representatives of three basic doctrines - socialist, nationalist and liberally-democratic, - in their direct rivalry there are factors which define both rates of reforming, and character of the economic and sociopolitical device of our country.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

POLITICAL CULTURE

 

Political culture - set of personal positions and orientations of members of concrete political system. It is the subjective sphere creating a fundamental principle of political actions and giving to them sense.

Gabriel Almond

 

Much from this that concerns now political culture, was analyzed and described by thinkers of an antiquity - Konfutsiem, Platon, Aristotle. However the term has appeared much later - in a XVIII-th century in works of German philosopher Johann Gottfried Gerdera (1744-1803). The theory describing this political phenomenon, was generated only in the late fifties - the beginning of 60th years ХХ centuries in the tideway of the western politological tradition. The American political scientist G.Almond (1911-2002), investigating political system, has allocated estimations of the political phenomena which in aggregate and characterised as political culture. Americans Sydney the Willow (a sort. 1932), Ljusen the Share (a sort. 1921), Uolter Rosenbaum (a sort. 1934), Ronald Inglhart (a sort. 1934), Englishmen Richard Rose (a sort. 1933), Dennis Kevenah, German theorist Klaus a background of Bojme (a sort. 1934), Frenchmen of Moris Djuverzhe (a sort. 1917), Rozhe-Zherar Shvartsenberg and other scientists have essentially added and have developed the doctrine about political culture.

Now in political science there were three basic approaches to treatment of political culture. One scientists identify it with the subjective maintenance of a policy, meaning by political culture all set of the spiritual phenomena (Almond, the Willow, George Bingem etc.). Other researchers consider it as reflexion of samples of political behaviour of the person (Stephen White [a sort. 1945], Jack Plejno, Mary Duglas). They imagine political culture as a certain matrix of norms used by the person and rules of a game of politics. The third group of political scientists understands political culture as a way, style of political activity of the person, assuming an embodiment of its valuable orientations in practical behaviour (Ien Shapiro, Parmatma Sharan (a sort. 1916), Uolter Rosenbaum).

In the modern politological literature the concept of political culture is more and more considered as political measurement of the cultural environment in a concrete society, the characteristic of national advantages of each people in this connection it is defined as set typical for the concrete country (group of the countries) forms and samples of behaviour of people in the public sphere, embodying their valuable representations about sense and the purposes of development of the world of a policy and fixing the norms which have settled in society and tradition of mutual relation of the state and a society. From such point of view the political culture is a set of political norms officially accepted and informally occurring in this or that country, rules, principles and customs which it is rigid enough, though frequently and imperceptibly, define, direct, limit their political behaviour.

II. Formation of political culture of this or that society and a system is influenced by many factors:

Historical preconditions, as a whole that usually is understood as “historical memory”;

The general culture of the country, the people which part is the political culture;

Geographical factors, as geopolitics - not last element in strategic thinking of ruling circles of all countries of the world;

Ideology as one of essential factors of formation of political culture.

The maintenance of political culture, its structure consists of following components:

- Political knowledge which develop of theoretical scientific knowledge and the practical knowledge received on the basis of the current information. Without theoretical knowledge the current information is not capable to form a deep and adequate picture of political processes, events. The current information gives the chance to be guided correctly in endured concrete conditions, to make decisions taking into account specific problems of time;

- Cultures of political thinking - abilities correctly to be guided in conditions, to focus attention on the main thing in political life, ability to analyze and systematise data, to state a correct estimation to political events and to make according to it the decision on the relation and the participation in them;

- Cultures of political feelings which define political behaviour of people;

- Cultures of political behaviour and activity which develop under the influence of political traditions, level of political consciousness, culture of political thinking and feelings.

In political life certain functions are peculiar to political culture, of which it is possible to carry the following to major:

Identification, opening constant requirement of the person for understanding of the group accessory and definition of ways of participation comprehensible to for expression and upholding of interests of the given generality;

ориентационную, characterising aspiration of the person to semantic display of the political phenomena, understanding of own possibilities at realisation of the rights and freedom in concrete political system. The political culture defines and orders norms of behaviour and game rules in the political sphere, supervising principles of political behaviour and activity;

The programming, expressing приоритетность certain orientations, norms and the representations setting both causing a certain orientation and borders of designing of behaviour of the person;

Adaptable, expressing requirement of the person for the adaptation to the changing public environment, conditions of realisation of its rights and imperious powers. The political culture not only protects political system from destruction, it gives it dynamism, sating system with mechanisms of adaptation to changing social and economic and other living conditions;

The socialisation, reflecting acquisition by the person of certain skills and the properties allowing it to realise in this or that system of the power the civil rights, political functions and interests;

Integration (дезинтеграционную), possibility of coexistence providing to various groups within the limits of certain political system, preservation of integrity of the state and its mutual relations with a society as a whole. The political culture is the integrator of all political experience and the mechanism of its transfer from the past to the present and from the present - to the future. This process зигзагообразен also is inconsistent, as from the past can pass in the present, along with the elements of the culture corresponding to requirements of given political system, also specifications and the models not compatible to the nature of system, undermining it;

Communication, all subjects providing interaction and institutes of the power on the basis of use of the standard terms, symbols, stereotypes and other news media and dialogue language.

III. Types of political culture. In a political science special popularity was received by the classification of political culture offered by G.Almondom and S.Verboj in the book “Civil culture” (1963). They have allocated three types of political culture:

парокиальная (English parochial - местнический, patriarchal) for which absence of interest of citizens to political life, knowledge of political system and significant expectations for people from its activity is characteristic. This culture excludes presence of concrete political roles, in it political orientations are not concretised, the subject does not possess knowledge concerning a policy, it is focused on so-called primary relations in groups, becomes isolated in local and ethnic solidarity;

подданническая - with strong orientation to political institutes and low level of individual activity of citizens. They submit to the power, expect from it the various blessings, without being afraid of dictatorship, behave only as submitted. Such political culture dominated during all history of the Russian State, including and the period of the USSR;

партиципаторная (English participation - participation), - testifies to interest of citizens in political participation and about display of activity by them in this sphere. The given political culture is called still активистской, meaning influence of citizens on imperious relations in the country by means of elections, referenda, demonstrations.

In real political life these types of political culture practically are never shown in "a pure" kind, they co-operate among themselves, forming the mixed versions with prevalence of those or other components (subcultures). The most mass and simultaneously optimum from the point of view of stability of system властвования is the synthetic culture of civilisation in which dominate подданнические installations and active forms of participation of people in the politician.“ Civil culture, - mark G.Almond and S.Verba, is the mixed political culture. In its frameworks many citizens can be active in the politician, however many other things play more passive role of "citizens". Even more important the fact, what even at those who actively plays a civil role, qualities of parishioners and citizens are not completely forced out. The role of the participant is simply added to those two roles. It means that the active citizen keeps the традиционалистские, неполитические, no less than the more passive role of the citizen ”.

In the substantial plan exist and the more general criteria of typology of the political culture, set by specificity цивилизационного devices of the special semiworlds - the East and the West, (or the South and the North), values and which traditions are the base of all existing types of political culture.

Ideals of political culture of the western type go back to полисной (city) organisation of the power in the Ancient Greece assuming obligatory participation of citizens in the decision of the general questions, and also to the Roman right which has confirmed the civil sovereignty of the person. Work as pledge of vital prosperity, the right and a personal freedom, a priority of a civil society in relation to the state, promotion as the corner-stone public life of the right and the law, division of the authorities, representative democracy and many other things - values and priorities on which base there were political cultures of the western type. The maintenance of its Almond and the Willow have opened as follows:

- The general positive estimation of value of activity of the government for it personally and deep comprehension of this fact;

- High level of interest to activity of the government and familiarity in this area;

- A pride for political institutes of the nation;

- Expectation of that will be rendered it the equal and attentive relation from officials;

- Desire to discuss policy questions publicly or in a circle of friends and acquaintances;

- The open and loyal display of oppositional moods;

- Content in connection with carrying out of national political actions, for example, campaigns for elections;

- Validity of judgements concerning the governmental policy and the developed indebtedness to affect this policy personally or together with someone from fellow citizens;

- Competence of use of legal establishments with a view of successful counteraction to arbitrary acts;

- Belief that democracy of participation is necessary and desirable system of the government.

Norms and traditions of political culture of the East root in features of ability to live of communal structures of agrarian societies of Asia and Africa. Base values of the given world were formed under the influence of constant domination of dominating structures, domination of collectivist forms of the organisation of private life, suppression by the centralised structures of conditions for individual enterprise activity, occurrence and private property development. The resolution of conflicts in such conditions provided not encouragement of legal norms, and the appeal to moral authority of seniors, chiefs. Therefore customs, instead of the law, opinion of a management, instead of the constitution became an ethical standard of political culture of east type. The given circumstances have confirmed as the basic valuable orientations of east political culture:

- Belief in necessity of the obligatory intermediary (the guru, teachers, senior) between the simple person and the power;

- Understanding of the political power as spheres of divine board;

- An exception of freedom, pluralism, competition of the policy world;

- A recognition of a predominating role of elite at absence not only intentions, but also requirement for control of their activity;

- The instruction to the simple person of especially performing functions.

The contrast of base reference points of western and east types of political culture has steady character which serious political reforms cannot shake even. In some states a certain synthesis of values of western and east types all the same was generated. So, technological jerk of Japan and its occurrence in club of leading industrial powers, and also consequences of the American occupation of the country after the Second World War have allowed to implant a considerable charge of liberally-democratic values and samples of political behaviour of citizens in its political culture. For the modern world processes not only westernisations, but also ориентализации are characteristic.

IV. Base values of the Russian political culture have developed under the influence of the factors which have not lost the influence and now. First of all it is possible to carry geopolitical circumstances to them (the size of territory, a climate, a landscape, the adjacent people). Own influence on dominating lines of the Russian political culture communal forms of the organisation of life of Russians, geopolitical срединность have rendered also Russia in relation to the East and the West, constant orientation of the state to extreme management methods. Long and inconsistent influence of various factors has led to occurrence internally split, horizontally and vertically polarised political culture in which its leading segments contradict each other on the base reference points. The basic levels of population gravitate in different proportions to values both western, and east political culture. For Russia and today are characteristic:

- Historical propensity to government centralisation, state domination over a society;

- Historical endurance and firmness, readiness for rallying and consolidation only during critical, crisis, fatal epoch and political indifference, apathy, conformism - during other periods of the state life;