Лекции по "Политологии"

According to theorists of conservative orientation, the main source of modernisation is the conflict between population "mobilisation" (joining in political life as a result of occurrence of contradictions) and “институциализацией” (presence of structures and the mechanisms intended for an articulation and aggregation of interests of citizens). Thereupon, as notices S.Hantington, modernisation causes “not political development, and political decline”. For a policy the main indicator of development is stability, therefore the strong political mode is necessary for the modernised states with the legitimate party in power, capable to constrain a tendency to разбалансированию for the power, that is, unlike the liberals, conceiving of strengthening of integration of a society on the basis of culture, formations, to religion, conservatives do an emphasis on organisation, an order, authoritative methods of board. Owing to that authoritative modes are non-uniform, conservatives also specify in presence of alternative variants of modernisation. H.Lind allocates, in particular, полусостязательный authoritarianism as an advancement step to democracy. Further he writes that authoritative modes can carry out the partial liberalisation connected with certain redistribution of the power in favour of opposition or owing to valuable priorities of ruling elite, etc.

Extensive experience of transformations in the countries of "the third world” has given the chance to allocate some steady tendencies and stages in evolution of transitive societies. So, S.Blek allocated stages of "comprehension of the purposes”, “consolidation of modernised elite”, “substantial transformation” and “society integration on a new basis”. S.Ejzenshtadt wrote about the periods “the limited modernisation” and “distribution of transformations” on all society. But the most develop этапизация transitive transformations belongs О’Доннелу, F.Shmitteru, A.Pshevorsky, etc., proved three following stages:

- A stage of liberalisation which is characterised by an aggravation of contradictions in authoritative and totalitarian modes and the beginning of washing out of their political bases. As a result of initial struggle “the dosed out democracy”, легализующая supporters of transformations in political space is established;

- The democratisation stage, different institutional changes in power sphere. Cardinal value at this stage has a question on consent achievement between ruling circles and democratic counterelite. As a whole for successful reforming it is necessary to reach three basic consensuses between these two groups: concerning last development of a society; concerning an establishment of the paramount purposes of social development; by definition of rules of "game of politics" of a ruling mode;

- A stage of consolidation of democracy when the actions providing irreversibility of democratic transformations in the country are carried out. It is expressed in maintenance of loyalty of the basic actors in relation to the democratic purposes and values in the course of decentralisation of the power, realisation of reforms of local government. As the English political scientist M.Garreton considers, criteria of irreversibility of democracy are:

Transformation of the state into the guarantor of democratic updating and its democratisation;

Autonomy of social movements and transformation of party system;

Fast economic growth, increase of a standard of living of the population; growth of political activity of citizens, adherence to the democracy purposes.

Political modernisation in the theoretical literature is considered as the change of political system characterised by increase of participation in the politician of various groups of the population (through political parties and groups of interests) and formation of new political institutes (division of the authorities, political elections, multi-party system, local government). Usually the concept of political modernisation is used with reference to the bodies which are carrying out transition to an industrial society and a democratic political system. In this case it is underlined that political modernisation is an importation by traditional societies of new social roles and the political institutes generated within the limits of the western democracies. Having arisen in the late fifties ХХ century As a theoretical substantiation of a policy of the West in relation to developing countries, the concept of political modernisation finally has turned to a substantiation of a certain general model of the global process, which essence - in the description of characteristic features and directions of transition from traditional to a modern rational society in the conditions of scientific and technical progress, socially-structural changes, transformation of standard and valuable systems.

With a certain share of convention it is possible to speak about existence of two stages in development of the concept of political modernisation. At the initial stage of development of this theory political modernisation was perceived as:

Democratisation of the developing states on the sample of the western countries;

Condition and means of successful social and economic development of the countries of "the third world”; 

Result of their active cooperation with the USA and the states of the Western Europe.

The present stage of development of the concept of political modernisation is characterised by occurrence of theories of "partial modernisation”, “deadlock modernisation”, “a crisis syndrome of modernisation”. In them it is a question of inevitability of a serious collision of old values traditional for given political culture and norms of political life and the new, modernised institutes which cannot get accustomed without serious changes in societies of "catching up" development. The concept of "new authoritarianism” which essence consisted in refusal of liberal approaches to political development and democratisation began to be proved. The great prestige was won by the concept of political modernisation of Dankvarta Rastou which perceived it as process of quickly increasing control over the nature by means of close стотрудничества people. In its theory of political modernisation three overall objectives of this phenomenon are allocated: 1) national unity; 2) the stable power; 3) equality. модернизационных transformations he considers as the most comprehensible variants models 2> 1> 3 or 1> 2> 3 according to which all successful modernisations have been realised. According to Rastou, equalities should achieve not earlier than achievement of national unity and stability of the power for in the absence of any of these elements the probability of disintegration of a political mode and the subsequent anarchy is great.

One of the most authoritative theories of political modernisation is put forward by Semjuelem Huntington which is defined by it as the process including: 1) power rationalisation: 2) differentiation of social, state and civil structures; 3) increase of level of political participation. By criterion of sequence of achievement of these purposes the scientist has allocated three models of modernisation. In evropejsko-continental модернизационном process he underlined rationalisation of the power and differentiation of structures. In Great Britain, unlike the continental countries, Huntington allocates parliament as an embodiment of the centralised power, instead of a monarchy. In the USA, in its opinion, modernisation was reduced to growth of political participation at preservation of political institutes of the British sample. At such modelling approach it allocated two kinds of modernisation:

Texnocratic, with its temporary restriction of participation of citizens, increase in capital investments and the economic growth aggravating an inequality (first of all in incomes);

Populist kind of modernisation where equality for the sake of which possibilities of political participation of citizens increase dominates, measures on maintenance of equal position of people in the material plan are taken.

Historical experience of political modernisations and their theoretical judgement allows to allocate among them following types:

- Spontaneous modernisations which arose and proceeded a natural way of spontaneous transformations of social and economic structure of a society and, as consequence, its political institutes. So business in Great Britain, the USA was;

- Directed modernisations in societies of "late start” (Germany, Italy, Russia, Japan) where agents of development independent of the political power of this kind actually were not issued. In societies of "the second wave of modernisation” law was accurately looked through: the more low there was a start point (that is initial level for modernisation), the necessity of the state intervention for public processes was more essential;

- National variants of modernisations among which experience of Great Britain where for the first time in history mankind was formed civil relations and institutes of a civil society is allocated. Here there is an industrially-capitalist society which in a political science it is accepted to name modern;

- Modernisations of so-called transitive societies - a conglomerate of the nations and the states where today's developing countries enter, “new democracies” east and Central Europe, state of the South European region (except for Italy) where processes of political modernisation have got steadily irreversible character only from the middle of 1970th years.

VI. Features of modernisation of a modern Russian society. Carrying out transitive transformations, the Russian society in own way solves arising problems, gives own answers to time calls. As a whole the Russian society can be carried to a version “делегативной democracies” which as it was inherent also in other countries, tests an identity acute crisis. It causes search by people of new spiritual reference points for comprehension of the place in a society and communications with the state owing to disintegration of those ideals and values which underlay before dominating political culture. It is possible to allocate eight features of political changes, political development and modern political process in Russia:

- The first feature consists in нерасчлененности politicians and economic, social and personal relations. The policy is not separated from other spheres of life owing to immaturity of institutes of a civil society which should limit and supervise it. Political process of the Russian Federation is characterised also by getting ability of a policy which penetrates all spheres of life of the society, any of economic or other major questions does not dare without intervention of power structures;

- The second feature - absence of a consensus between participants of political process concerning legalisation of the purposes and means of political action. Absence of aspiration to the consent concerning the proclaimed purposes of democratic transformations speaks not only absence of culture of a consensus which could not be generated for some years of modernisation. The main reason consists in essentially different understanding of values of freedom and democracy political forces existing in a modern Russian society, in an inequality of possibilities of active participation in reformatory process and satisfaction of own interests;

- The third feature consists in неструктурированности the Russian political process, highly possibilities of combination and interchangeability of political roles. Absence of differentiation and specialisation of political roles and functions at subjects and power carriers is caused by the Russian political tradition of concentration of the power, domination of the uniform centre. The slightest easing of political domination of exclusively dominating person or group leads to conflicts, controllability loss by social processes;

- The fourth feature consists in absence of integration among participants of political process that is a consequence of absence in a society of uniform communication system. Vertically organised political process usually is carried out thanks to the adjusted dialogue of the power and a society in which the last informs the requirements to power structures through the branched out system of representation. The branched out system of representation of interests in Russia just is created. The greatest possibilities of representation of the interests the ruling elite and the bureaucracy supervising resources and political influence now possesses;

- The fifth feature is expressed that at the heart of political process in Russia active political style lies. The active role of the state both in a formulation of problems, and in the compelled integration of interests of various groups is caused by cultural-religious, ethnic and political heterogeneity of a society. Absence of real differentiation of political roles and functions among government institutes allowed to carry out decision-making process anonymously.

- The sixth feature of the Russian political process consists that in it not so much groups of interests prevail, and “political клиентелы” - presidential, governmental, parliamentary. The affinity to the president which concentrates considerable volumes of imperious powers in the hands, allows these клиентелам to count on special possibilities of use of the power;

- The seventh feature of political process consists in the Russian Federation that excessive concentration of the power and resources in hands of ruling elite forces counterelite and opposition to represent itself as radical movements, instead of political opponents. The sharp antagonism of elite and counterelite acts as a consequence of cultural-political heterogeneity of the elite which different groups are guided both on liberal, and by socialist, conservative and other values;

- The eighth feature of political process of Russia follows from intensive маргинализации большей parts of a modern Russian society. At small efficiency of institutes of a civil society it has caused a situation when leaders are compelled to adhere to more certain sights in foreign policy, than concerning the internal.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

POLITICAL CONFLICTS AND CRISES

 

People are amazingly mistrustful to each other, all time the attack, from here their monstrous aggression expect.

JU.M.Nagibin

 

I. Political conflicts and their typology. The political conflict represents one of possible variants of interaction of political subjects. It can be defined as a version (and result) competitive interaction of two and more parties (groups, the states, individuals), challenging each other imperious powers or resources. The concept of a political conflict designates struggle of one subjects against others for influence in system of political relations, access to acceptance of valid decisions, the order resources, monopoly of interests and their recognition socially necessary, for all that makes the power and political domination. One of founders of modern conflictology of L.Kozer defined a political conflict as “struggle for values and claims for the certain social status, the power and the material for all material and spiritual blessings; Struggle in which the purposes consisting in a conflict of two sides is neutralisation, drawing of a damage or destruction of the contender ”.

Experts - конфликтологи as basic elements of the conflict allocate the following:

- The source (subject) of the conflict expressing a being of disagreements between participants of dispute;

- An occasion characterising concrete events which have served as the beginning of active actions of the parties on upholding of the interests, the purposes, positions in relations with the competitor;

- The parties of the conflict meaning number of subjects, directly and indirectly participating in struggle for imperious statuses and resources in policy sphere;

- Perception and the positions of subjects opening them of the purpose in competitive interaction, the relation to counterparts, perception of the conflict and other subjective characteristics of behaviour of the parties;

- The means of the conflict characterising typical resources applied by the parties, ways, receptions in interaction with each other;

- The character of the conflict opening the most typical relations of the competing parties, rigidity or plasticity of positions occupied with them, ability to updating of a subject of dispute, involving of intermediaries etc.

More often allocate four principal causes of occurrence of political conflicts:

Discrepancy of statuses of subjects of a policy, their role appointments and functions;

Collision of interests and requirements for the power;

Lack of resources;

Divergences of people (their groups and associations) concerning values and political ideals, the cultural traditions, those estimations or other events.

II. Tipologizatsija of conflicts. In the general view in a political science it is accepted to classify conflicts as follows:

- c the points of view of zones and areas of their display allocate foreign policy and internal political conflicts;

- On degree and character of standard regulation conflicts are divided on институциализированные and неинституциализированные, characterising ability or inability of people (institutes) to submit to operating rules of a game of politics;

- Under qualitative characteristics of conflicts are allocated:

"Deeply" and "superficially implanted" in consciousness of people disputes and contradictions;

Conflicts “with the zero sum” when positions of the parties are opposite and consequently the victory of one of them turns around defeat another;

Conflicts “with the nonzero sum in which there is at least one way of a finding of the consent”;

Conflicts “with the negative sum” in which all participants appear in loss;

The antagonistic and nonantagonistic conflicts (K.Marx), which permission contacts destruction of one of the contradictory parties or accordingly preservation of contradictory subjects.

- On intensity degree it is accepted to allocate эскалированные and conflicts of low intensity;

- From the point of view of publicity of a competition of the parties it makes sense to speak about the open and closed conflicts;

- Under time characteristics of competitive interaction of the parties long-term and short-term conflicts are divided;

- In view of a structure and the organisation of a mode of the power, allocate conflicts vertical (conflicts between the central and local elite, federal authority and local government bodies) and horizontal (in ruling elite, between not parties in power, members of one political association).

Many конфликтологи hold the opinion that three basic types of conflicts differ:

- Conflicts of interests prevail in economically developed countries, the steady states where the political norm considers "auction" concerning a sharing of economic "pie"; this type of the conflict most easily gives in to regulation as here always it is possible to find the conciliatory proposal;

- Conflicts of values which are characteristic for the developing states with an unstable political system; they demand more efforts on settlement, as the compromise concerning such values, as freedom, equality, justice труднодостижим if at all it is possible;

- Identity conflicts, characteristic for societies in which there is an identification the subject of to certain group (ethnic, religious, language), instead of with a society and the state as a whole; this type of conflicts arises in the conditions of opposition of races, ethnic or language contrast.

  III. The Basic strategy of management by conflicts. As the most significant strategy in which frameworks own technologies on conscious influence on the conflict are formed, it is possible to allocate following purposes characterising them:

- инициация the conflict, meaning a permanent aggravation of contradictions available in a society, strengthening of escalation of conflicts and preservation of sharply competitive relations for the purpose of generation of a situation which would be fashionable for using more effectively, than the opponent can make it;

- рутинизация the conflict, meaning conscious maintenance of the arisen intensity in relations of the parties on purpose to use it in own interests;

- The prevention of the conflict aimed at a non-admission of transition of contradictions in an open phase of an antagonism and increase of a political tension;

- The settlement of the conflict focused on full or partial removal of a sharpness of an antagonism of the parties, and also on avoiding the most negative consequences for itself, the state, a society as a whole;

- The resolution of conflict providing or elimination of the reasons of the conflict, exhaustion of the subject of dispute, or such change of a situation and circumstances which would generate frictionless relations of the parties, has excluded danger of relapse of disagreements, has removed probability of a new aggravation of already settled relations;

- The replacement of the conflict assuming transferring of responsibility for various ways of end of the conflict on other level of political system (for example, with federal on regional or on the contrary).

Political practice and the theory develops some general forms and ways of prevention, regulation and a resolution of conflicts. Among them the most known - the compromise and a consensus. The compromise in dictionaries political terms is defined as the agreement on the basis of reciprocal concessions. Distinguish compromises compelled and voluntary. The first with inevitability are imposed by the developed circumstances. The second consist on the basis of agreements on certain questions and correspond to any part of political interests of all co-operating forces. Concept of a consensus (from an armour. consentio - the generality of feelings and thoughts, mutual understanding) means the agreement of the considerable majority of people of any community rather most prominent aspects of its social usages, expressed in actions. In democratic systems usually distinguish three objects of the possible agreement:

- Ultimate goals (freedom, equality, justice etc.) which make structure of system of representations;

- Game, procedures corrected;