Лекции по "Политологии"

The linearly-Progressistsky scheme of political development in XIX century in unusual way was reproduced in Marxism with its representation about linearity of history and the concept of change of socioeconomic structures. For Charles Marx and Fridriha of Engels political changes (dynamic processes in a superstructure) reflected qualitative social and economic shifts in basis. Along with obvious achievements in understanding of problems of development, such its rigid treatment considerably simplified historical process, disturbed to its volume perception.

It is accepted to carry political reform, revolution, revolution to the basic ideal types of political change in political science, is more rare - restoration and partial or full revision (audit) of the constitution. Peace political change in state frameworks - the nations is a reform. The given term reflects first of all evolutionary and nonviolent character of development of political process, ability of concrete political system to adapt to more and more diverse interests and requirements of the national community, new structural factors (economic, social, ethnic and so forth), to consider, changing, environment influence provides its stability. The bright examples of reform - the constitutional changes in executive power (in the government etc.) Reorganisation of a parity of forces and influences in party system or in parliament. Stability of any political system throughout considerable time - at all a sign of absence of changes, and the certificate of flexible and skilful system reforming by not compulsory methods, anticipations of problem situations, adjustment of politiko-standard mechanisms for peace changes. Political reform (фр. reforme from an armour reformo - I transform) - change, a reorganisation in a way of activity and as a part of institutes, establishments not destroying bases of existing political structure Reform is spent, as a rule, in a legislative order and from above with a view of perfection of abilities of political system to adapt for conditions of its functioning changing in process.

The central phenomenon even among the basic types of political change is revolution - the collective, violent and realised capture of the power by any public group. Besides, the word revolution can be used and figuratively for a designation of the powerful tendencies promoting radical restructuring, revolution in any area of ability to live of a society (scientific and technical and information revolutions, «revolution in art»). Revolution (позднелат. revolutio - turn, revolution from revolvere - to overturn) - radical qualitative change in development something. A social revolution - revolution in all political and social and economic structure of a society. As one of two predominating forms of political development revolution противополагается evolutions (an armour evolutio - expansion) - to slow, gradual process of changes in political sphere In the modern politological literature are used also terms инволюция (an armour. invotutio - curling) in value of return development and деволюция as movement back, downwards, decrease in level something.

The general definition of concept of revolution is not present. Dictionaries explain it laconically enough and neutrally. Researchers essentially and differently expand similar interpretation, paying attention to different characteristic aspects of revolutionary process. Марксисты, as well as founders of this doctrine, start with sequence of socioeconomic structures and do conclusions in respect of the development theory: revolution - a quantum leap on its higher step. Peter Shtompka at ordering of explanations of revolution has divided them into three groups. It has included definitions according to which revolutions are fundamental and widespread transformations of a society in the first, i.e. their depth and scale is accented, and in the given sense they are opposed to reforms: it «unexpected, radical changes in political, economic and social structures of a society». Definitions in which the emphasis becomes on violence, struggle and speed of changes, i.e. «are included In the second group Technics »realisation of revolutions, so, they противополагаются evolutions as« the fundamental sociopolitical changes which have been carried out quickly and a violent way ». The third group combines approaches of first two that, according to Shtompki, it is most useful: revolution is« fast, base transformations of social and class structures of societies by revolutions from below ».

Revolution is characterised by researchers as the most intensive, violent and realised process of all social movements. In it see limiting expression of free will and deep feelings, display of uncommon organizational abilities and advanced ideology of the social protest. Special value is given to the utopian or emancipating ideal based on symbolics of equality, progress, freedom and on belief that revolutions create a new and best social order. To the above-stated explanations of concept of revolution it is necessary to add some more which were underlined by the French political scientist Jean-Lui Kermonn:

1. Revolution is always directed against an existing mode to replace it for the sake of opposite legitimacy; it can pour out in uncontrollable process of stage-by-stage planting of astable modes while one of them will not manage to establish new political balance in a society.

2. Revolution actuates crowd which identifies itself with all people.

3. If the revolutionary initiative belonged to minority it declares that operates on behalf of the majority of citizens or oppressed, but a majority class.

Political scientists converge usually in three cases, specifying in following signs of revolutions: these are radical, universal changes of bases of a social order; in them the big weights of the mobilised people operate; revolutionary process is necessarily accompanied by violence. Therefore in political science simple enough classification of revolutions is used:

1. Political revolutions at state level; they are limited to transformation of institutes, changing them легитимизацию;

2. The revolutions connected with transformation of a society; they quite often happen are accelerated by military defeat of the state;

3. The revolutions creating the new state; frequently are a product of disintegration of multinational empire or decolonization.

Results of revolutions, according to Shmuelja Ejzenshtadta, happen multilateral. First, this violent change of an existing political mode, bases of its legitimacy and its symbolics. Secondly, replacement of incapable political elite or ruling class others. Thirdly, far-reaching changes in all major institutional spheres, first of all in economy and class relations, - changes which are directed on modernisation of the majority of aspects of social life, on economic development and industrialisation, centralisation and expansion of a circle participating in political process. Fourthly, radical rupture with the past. Consider, fifthly, that revolutions carry out not only institutional and organizational transformations, but also make changes to morals and education, creating or generating the new person.

Revolution - sudden unconstitutional capture of the power, illegal change of ruling elite in whole (presidencies, the governments, the personnel of administrative structures) which are not connected with any basic changes of a political mode, social and economic relations. The general for revolution and revolution - collective and violent character of political action, and also aspiration by means of propagation идеологизировать event. Distinguishes these concepts that circumstance that plot, and organised in state institutes happens a revolution source usually. Revolution does not have other purposes, except destruction of legitimacy of the existing power, the statement in the head of the state of other person or minority which will keep the found powers force. Illegality of revolution forces it to qualify as the political change denying a lawful state.

The concept of revolution has some actual synonyms. Putsch (it. рutsch) is an overthrow or attempt of overthrow of the government by means of a part of army, group of officers. Such political change almost always represents negation of the stable form of government and conducts national community to anarchy or to dictatorship. At the same time, in a world political history cases when result of typical revolution was process of creation of a new mode are noted. In this respect the estimation of consequences of revolution depends on character of the political mode established by its results - authoritative, totalitarian or focused on democracy. Mussolini's march to Rome in 1922 promoted the statement of totalitarian dictatorship; revolution of 1974 In Portugal, on the contrary, has shaken the discredited authoritarianism inherited by the country from dictator Salazara, and has opened a way «revolutions of carnations» - to a cycle of political changes which democracies as a result have led.

Restoration (позднелат. Restauratio - restoration) name process of the political changes directed on revival of a way of board (mode), before subverted by revolution or revolution. In a historical retrospective show of restoration were reactionary (for example, secondary board of a dynasty of Burbons in France in 1815-1830) more often. Much less often they promoted an establishment of more democratic mode («republican restoration» under general Charles де Gaulle in France in 1945-1947 when useful structural reforms in political and social spheres have been carried out).

Constitution revision (full or in its considerable part) - one more version of political changes quite often estimated as reform. But between these concepts there are differences. Procedure of single audit of the organic law of the state is used as the politiko-legal tool, helping to begin process of peace change of a mode losing legitimacy. Such wise politician as де Gaulle when in 1958 has submitted for approval a referendum absolutely new constitutional text, and in France there was институционализирована V Republic - the political mode existing, with small updatings, has used to this day this way.

II. Actual positions of concepts of development in treatment of concepts of traditional, transitive and modern societies. In the middle of XX century with distribution of comparative political researches the new stage in working out of the theory of development has begun. The politological approach to a development phenomenon meant, first of all, revealing and an explanation of general characteristics of variety of communications, relations and processes of a political reality for as a result of development there is a new condition of public sphere. The general theory of political development develops of an abundance of the concepts considering it from the various parties and offering the schemes of a scientific substantiation of a problem. More low in the form of theses Most significant of them in тезисном a kind are listed only look as follows:

1. Political development - the precondition of economic progress. Concepts such treat political development as such condition of political system which can facilitate economic growth.

2. Political development - the policy typical for industrial societies. It is supposed that the industrial society creates universal model of political life to which each society, without dependence from a condition of the industry is capable to direct. Certain models of presumably rational and responsible behaviour of the government become specific qualities of political development in that case:

- Refusal of the precipitate actions menacing to legitimate interests of considerable social classes;

- Accent on social programs; representation about high value organised administrative and legal proceedings;

- A recognition of that a policy - the fair tool of resolution of problems, instead of end in itself;

- Known restrictions of leadership of a policy; the consent with some forms of mass participation.

Political development as modernisation. In models of such plan it is proved that the advanced industrial countries are «samples for imitation» because set rates of development on the majority of directions of social and economic life. It is quite clear to extend aspiration this assumption and to political sphere. At the same time, a problem of political development, especially when it comprehend as political modernisation, comprises difficulty of distinction "western" and "modern".

Political development as state actions - the nations. Concepts of this plan are based on the assumption that historically there was a set of types of political systems, and any communities created own type of a policy, however with the advent of the state - the nations there was also a special set of requirements to a policy. Political development, from this point of view, is interpreted as process, by means of which community, being the states - the nations only under the form and thanks to the international environment, become those in a reality. The test for original political development in that case - creation of a set of the public institutes making a necessary infrastructure of the state, and controllable expression of nationalism in political life. That is political development is understood as the nationalism entered in frameworks of the state institutes. It is important to notice that authors of similar concepts almost always underline: Nationalism - necessary, but the sufficient condition for maintenance of political development is far not. It, basically, should transform the absent-minded, unorganized nationalist sentiments to spirit of citizenship, to promote creation of the state institutes capable on the basis of nationalist and civil aspirations to generate a political policy and various programs.

5. Political development as perfection of administrative and legal systems. The concept of political development as formations of the organisations has the big history and the expert underlies many public. The law and an order demand presence of bureaucratic structures and government development. As the recent history shows, political development means much bigger, than the organisation of the governmental administrative structures. When such development considerably advances other directions of social and political evolution, in system can arise the disproportion, becoming in due course obstacles in a way of creation of the state - the nations. Important here that political development should extend as well on not state institutes of a society.

6. Political development in the form of mass mobilisation and participation. Concepts of this sort are connected mainly with behaviour and roles of citizens, and also required for осовременивания new standards of their political participation and loyalty in relation to the state.

One of modern approaches to interpretation of concept of political development is presented by James Koulmanom and Ljusenom the Share which has defined it as a combination of processes of structural differentiation, increasing requirement for equality and expansions интегративной, adaptive, responsible functions of political system. Together all it makes «a development syndrome» which almost all societies face. Formation of the named syndrome is caused by the crises inherent to political development as a whole, no less than to any difficult public process.

In the theory of political development of Albert Hirshmana the general theoretical conclusion looks as follows: for stable development the system needs to create at first new requirements and gradually to overcome alienation of citizens from a policy, and then, according to these requirements, институционализировать besides new forms of participation that its lifting has not led to blasting of a political order.

Life has shown demand for the new, interdisciplinary theory which would interpret multi-variant approach of process of political changes. There was objectively a scientific necessity for working out of the generalised paradigm of development. There were the researches based on empirical indicators where it is considered as increase in adaptive possibilities of political system, its ability to keep plasticity in the conditions of quickly changing reality. Such approach assumes the description of processes, instead of their results that expands possibilities of knowledge of a phenomenon of political development.

III. Political modernisation. For the characteristic of political process changes of type of development which are connected with definition of a qualitative orientation of evolution of political system, its progress or recourse have special value. Many of ideas expressing about it and concepts are anyhow reflected in theory of the modernisation representing set of various schemes and models of the analysis which allow to describe and open dynamics of overcoming of backwardness of the traditional states. It arises in communication by necessity of scientific judgement of ways of transformation received clearing in 50-60th years ХХ century from colonial domination of the countries. The term "modernisation" in such context began to mean simultaneously and a stage (condition) of public transformations, and process of transition of the released states to a condition of modern societies. As front lines in such cases the western countries in this connection the westernisation, that is copying of the western samples of development in all areas of life became a core of numerous theories of modernisation in essence were represented. Thus for modernisation the unique form of progress - “catching up development” admitted lawful. However by 80th years ХХ century of model of modernisation such have actually failed, to a limit having complicated life of many afro-Asian states.

It is remarkable that for some decades of attempts of research of a problematics of political development with use of positions of the theory of modernisation various authors and have not come to any one point of view. It is natural, as scientists analyzed the most interesting and clear it fragments of a difficult and inconsistent reality. So, for one, inheriting Max Vebera's ideas, modernisation was represented first of all in the form of rationalisation political society spheres as a whole. For others it meant mainly deepening of differentiation of social and political structures (Tolkotta Parsons's thought). However anyway in a basis of different treatments of political development as modernisations the uniform theoretical scheme has initially been put: the history and political process were understood as the movement predetermined by objective socio-economic factors from a so-called traditional society to a society transitive, and then - to modern. One of the first the American researcher Uolter Rostou which theoretical workings out and are used today by consideration almost all problems of the present connected with development has addressed to this problematics. In the general opinion the scientists traditional and modern societies essentially differ on the base social paradigms. Modernisation and, as consequence, formation of bases of a modern society leant against following objective preconditions:

1. Reduction to uniformity of codes of intranational dialogue, consolidation of the territorial, ethnic and language space, creating favorable conditions for formation of the nation-state and political system of modern type.

2. Realization of the industrialisation conducting to qualitative shifts in social structure which, in turn, serve as the incentive reason осовременивания political sphere.

3. Formation national воспроизводственного a complex functioning in a mode of self-supported growth, supported with incorporated transport and information infrastructures.

Urbanization (i.e. transformation of a society from mainly rural in city) which promotes occurrence of city culture as way of life and the style of behaviour defining an orientation of development of a society.

Increase of social and territorial mobility of the population owing to the statement of industrial forms of economic activities and, as consequence, washing out of rigid public and institutional communications of traditional type.

6. Transformation, under influence вышеобозначенных structural shifts, a policy in one of spheres of self-realisation of the person, and the individual - in the independent, independently conceiving and operating subject of political process, henceforth free from restrictions of the closed groups (communities).

7. The Statement of the new political institutes, beginning to function in a mode of representation of all variety of interests present at a society.

At the same time, including from initiators of working out of the theory of modernisation, there was a criticism of its separate most vulnerable positions:

- First, «культуроцентризма» the installation setting western sociopolitical and other reference points as criteria of an estimation of an orientation and a rhythm of political changes in not western societies;

- Secondly, representations about linearities of the development, which legitimacy has been called into question by experience of modernisation of some societies, revealed impossibility to explain within the limits of the given theory original character of political changes in many not western regions of the world, and also a reality of a nonlinear way of development, including recurrence, returns, recourse.

In 80-90th years of the XX-th century communication the modernisation theory in a political science has been reconsidered. Concepts of the transients have been entered, which steels to be interpreted as a certain independent stage of development. Having generalised lessons of modernisation of the various countries and the modes, many scientific steels to draw on necessity of certain sequence of transformations, observance of certain rules at their realisation. So, U.Mur and A.Ekstajn believed what to begin reforming it is necessary from society industrialisation, K.Griffin - from reforms in agriculture. M.Levi insisted on the intensive help of the developed countries, S.Ejzenshtadt - on development of institutes which could consider social changes. U.Shramm considered that the leading role in the given processes is played by the political communications broadcasting the general values, and B.Higgins asserted that the main link of modernisation - an urbanization.

In a general view the problem of a choice of variants and modernisation ways dared in theoretical dispute of liberals and conservatives. The first recognised that basically four cores of a variant of succession of events are possible at modernisation:

- At a priority of a competition of elite over participation of ordinary citizens there are the optimal preconditions for consecutive democratisation of a society and realisation of reforms;

- In the conditions of increase of a role of a competition of elite, but at low activity of the basic part of the population preconditions for an establishment of authoritative modes of board and braking of transformations are formed;

- Domination of political participation of the population over competition of free elite when activity of the operated advances professional activity of managing directors, promotes increase охлократических tendencies that can provoke toughening of the forms of government and delay of transformations;

- Simultaneous minimisation соревновательности elite and political participation of weights conducts to chaos, decomposition of society and political system that also can provoke coming to power of the third force and a dictatorship establishment.