Лекции по "Политологии"

- The concrete governments and a state policy.

These three objects can be transformed to three levels of a consensus:

Consensus at level of community or the basic, valuable;

Consensus at level of a mode or procedural;

Consensus at policy level.

The first of these levels shows, whether divides the given society identical valuable representations and the purposes. Procedural or second level establishes the game rules fixed in constitutions. The third level of a consensus puts in the forefront a parallel "power-opposition" when disagreement on questions of a policy and opposition to the government is caused by the relation to members of the government, instead of to the form of government. In all cases efficiency of a consensus depends on participation in distribution of compensations, privileges, the power, well-being of a society, level of political culture.

Settlement of conflicts - concept wide enough, but, first of all, includes three directions:

- The prevention of open forms of display of the conflicts accompanied by violent acts (wars, mass riots etc.);

- A resolution of conflicts assuming elimination of the reasons causing them, formation of new level of relations between conflicting parties;

- Settling of conflicts (decrease in level of animosities of conflicting parties, conflict transfer in a channel of a joint solution of a problem).

According to these three directions it is possible to allocate three groups of the methods facilitating search of a peace exit from the conflict. Each of these groups of methods, as well as methods, possess a number of advantages, lacks and restrictions. Usually the most effective is complex application of various methods depending on concrete conditions and character of the conflict.

Early diagnostics and revealing of the reasons concern the first group of methods not to admit its further growth. For these purposes the standardised procedures based on tracing of disputed relations by means of the COMPUTER are often used. However the basic accent becomes on development of institutes and mechanisms of the prevention of violent forms of development of conflicts. Creation of a wide network of the state and not state consulting services concerns their number.

Methods of the second group concentrate on elimination of the reasons of occurrence of conflicts. In this case the resolution of conflict contacts change of its deep structures. Correctly organised dialogue between the social groups which are in the conflict, is one of the central methods in the given approach. It is directed on change of character of perception, and also by means of it is on change of the relation of the parties to each other.

The third group of methods includes a number of receptions which assume conflict transfer in the rational plan. Only very few conflicts by the nature are conflicts to the zero sum that is when interests of conflicting parties are completely opposite. Giving to the conflict of nonzero character opens prospects of its decision. Other variant - to diversify values and the purposes, that is to make so that different groups aspired to a miscellaneous, to not crossed purposes. The parties can generate the purposes of higher order, allowing to unite for the sake of their achievement. The basic problem at use of the methods focused on search of a mutually acceptable variant of the decision, consists that conflicting parties not always behave rationally and are not always ready to compromises for the sake of consent achievement. Despite the specified restrictions, in frameworks of this group of methods the technology of negotiating and realisation of intermediary services is developed.

The choice of a way of the resolution of conflict entirely depends on conflicting parties, but a main role in it can play and concomitant factors. For example, a choice of a peaceful way of settlement of the conflict can influence such factors, as presence in a society of the balance of forces, corresponding historical experience, publicity, institutional conditions for consultations and negotiations. One of leading representatives of Anglo-Saxon political science of D.Apter, proceeding from the theory of balance of a society, considers that there are three stages of development of public conflicts:

- Collision of preferences (cooperation);

- Collision of interests (competition);

- Collision of the basic values (the original conflict).

According to Aptera, at a resolution of conflicts the problem consists in transforming conflicts of values to conflicts of interests, or better still - in collision of preferences, that is in a competition or cooperation. For its realisation use different methods: negotiating process, intermediary, separation of the parties, etc. Thus it is necessary to observe a number of conditions:

The consent about negotiating rules is obligatory for both parties;

Not идеологизировать the conflict;

To establish the real reasons of the conflict and to find right ways to its permission.

E.Nordlindzher has proved six main principles for successful settlement of political conflicts:

1) A stable coalition; 

2) A proportionality principle;

3) деполитизация;

4) Reciprocity of the veto;

5) The compromise;

6) Concession, that is granting of the right of settlement of the conflict to the third party.

As a whole democratic process of control over conflict situations includes following procedures:

- A mutual and operative exchange of trustworthy information about interests, intentions and the next steps of the parties participating in the conflict;

- Conscious mutual abstention from application of the force, capable to give uncontrollability of a conflict situation;

- The announcement of the mutual moratorium on the actions aggravating the conflict;

- Connection of the arbitrators, which impartial approach it is guaranteed, and recommendations are assumed as a basis compromise actions;

- Use existing or acceptance of new rules of law, the administrative and other procedures promoting rapprochement of conflicting parties;

- Creation and maintenance of atmosphere of business partnership, and then and confidential relations as preconditions of exhaustion of the current conflict and prevention of similar conflicts in the future.

IV. Political crisis (from греч krisis - crisis, heavy transitive position, an outcome) - a special condition in development and functioning of political system of a society and first of all its power structures, characterised by instability, разбалансированностью activity of political institutes, decrease in level of controllability by all spheres of life of a society, increase of sociopolitical activity of weights.

The political science allocates the foreign policy crises caused by the international conflicts and contradictions, and internal political crises (governmental, parliamentary, constitutional, etc.).

The governmental crisis - especially frequent phenomenon, is expressed in loss by the authority cabinet, in default of its orders by executive powers. If the government does not cope with a situation the parliament can refuse to it trust and poison resignation.

Parliamentary crisis is a change of a parity of forces in regulatory authorities when parliament decisions disperse from will of the majority of citizens of the country. Dissolution of parliament and appointment of new elections can become result. Parliamentary crisis can arise and in that case when the basic contradictory fractions approximately are equal in it on force and it disturbs to decision-making, will paralyse work of legislators.

The constitutional crisis is connected with actual cancellation of the Organic law of the country. The former constitution loses legitimacy and its qualitative revision is required.

Political crisis as that is characterised делегитимизацией power structures, absence of interaction between the various centres of the power, blocking of one centre by another, decrease in efficiency of sociopolitical regulation and control, escalation of spontaneous forms of the political protest (meetings, strikes, demonstrations, etc.).

Depending on features of display and the reasons of occurrence of political crisis in political science allocate its such forms, as:

- Crisis of legitimacy which results from a mismatch of the purposes and values of a ruling mode with representations of the basic part of citizens about necessary means and forms of political regulation, norms of fair board etc.;

- The crisis of identity arising when ethnic and socially-structural distinctions become a barrier on a way of national association and identification with certain political system;

- The crisis of political participation characterised by creation by ruling elite of artificial obstacles to inclusion in active political life of groups, declaring the claims for the power, and also an aggravation of a problem of preservation of territorial integrity. National unity and stability of political system in the conditions of fast growth of political participation of groups with inconsistent interests;

- The crisis of penetration shown in decrease of ability of the government to pass the decisions in various areas of public life. Its occurrence is usually connected with a divergence between a real policy and the proclaimed governmental purposes;

- Crisis of distribution which means inability of ruling elite to provide growth of material well-being comprehensible to a society and its distribution, allowing to avoid excessive social differentiation and basic material benefits guaranteeing availability to all levels of population.

V. Political crisis passes a number of stages in the development:

Precritical condition of a society or its political system when social contradictions cannot be resolved by compromises any more;

The occurrence of crisis meaning inability of the government to solve a problem facing a society by political methods, characteristic for normal functioning of political system;

Development and the aggravation of crisis expressed in disintegration of existing political structures, in anarchy or multiple authority occurrence.

The crisis aggravation can become the beginning of its permission consisting in elimination of a conflict situation, and also its further development, increase of possibility of a political disaster. The personal computer usually is derivative of contradictions and conflicts in a society, not removed owing to the various reasons usual means of political management of a society. Such contradictions can be divided on functional, structural and system.

The first group of contradictions leads to functional frustration of political mechanisms, to discrepancy of forms and methods of activity of institutes of the power to the changed internal and external living conditions. For their overcoming there are enough reforms. But if ruling groups show inability to reforming functional contradictions are capable to outgrow in structural, that is to conduct to further crisis deepenings.

Development of structural contradictions means that state system forms do not correspond to social and economic and other living conditions of a society. Crisis of structures of the power, its legitimacy begins. Objectively it means that the society at this stage has settled possibilities of the development within the limits of the given organisation and has ripened for its transition in qualitatively new stage. Structural crises are accompanied by rough social shocks, but can proceed and rather peacefully. The structural reforms meaning deep transformations in economic and political spheres are necessary for their permission.

System contradictions mean that society basic elements have come to such mutual discrepancy that it cannot be overcome within the limits of existing political system. They разрешимы only during its change - a revolutionary or nonviolent way. Usually at a stage of system crisis there is a revolutionary situation, full loss by the power of the legitimacy is available. Struggle is entered by new subjects of political process.

The general condition of an exit from political crisis is availability of system to criticism from a society, its openness to information sources, flexibility, mobility of system, its ability to change with reference to new calls of world development.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

POLITICAL COMMUNICATIONS

 

Political communications - process of transfer of the political information by means of which the information circulates between various elements of political system, and also between political and social systems. Information interchange continuous process is carried out both between individuals, and between operating and operated for the purpose of consent achievement.

The River-. Шварценберг

 

I. Essence of communications as political process. Formation and functioning in sphere of the public power of various ideologies, values, symbols, doctrines, official norms and opposition views of various actors make special political process. Its essence consists that at the expense of transfer and an exchange of messages political subjects let know about themselves and come into necessary contacts and communications with the various counterparts, allowing them to play various political roles. Those data which get out people for preparation and acceptance of necessary decisions in government sphere, are called as the political information.

The information is for the political phenomena the same basic property, as substance and energy. As a result of its presence or absence the subject can find or lose the power, influence, possibility to realise the interests. Owing to that people differently perceive the information, interpreting its maintenance on the basis of certain rules, habits, ways of perception, in the course of information interchange basic value has ability of the subject intelligently to perceive messages. The given aspect субъективированного perceptions, interpretations, information mastering is called as communications or process in which operate the sender - a communicator and the addressee - the recipient. Communication aspects of information communications show that the exchange of messages is not faceless technical process which can ignore features of recipients as real participants of political relations, the information for the last - only the precondition, but not the factor of political actions. It is possible to assert that from the point of view of consumption and an exchange of people of various data in sphere of the public power all institutes and power mechanisms are not than other, as means of processing of information streams and rather independent structures in the information market. The policy considered from the point of view of information-communicative communications, represents social whole, structures and which institutes are intended for development, reception and processing of the information causing realisation by political subjects of the political roles and functions.

II. Theoretical treatments of information-communicative processes. For the first time the political system as information-communicative system was presented by K.Dojch. Developing this approach, J.Habermas placed emphasis on communicative actions and corresponding elements of a policy (values, the norms, training actions), representing them as a basis of a social and political order. G.Shelski, on the contrary, has formulated thereupon idea of "the technical state”, having put in the forefront not social, but technical aspects of the political organisation of the power. In that case the state should follow only in small degree to will and interests of separate citizens and groups since by its reference point and simultaneously means the logic of modern technics, its requirements having imperative character should be considered.

Modern experience of development of political systems has really shown certain tendencies of growth of a role of tehniko-communication means in the organisation of political life, first of all in industrially developed countries. However they can be treated only as the preconditions expanding possibilities of institutes and subjects of the power for maneuver as do not eliminate the leading part of political interests of groups, conflicts and contradictions between them. Basically in political science three basic ways of political communications - through informal contacts, the political organisations and mass media, - operating incentive (the order, the order), actually information (real or invented data) actual (the data connected with an establishment and maintenance of contact between subjects politicians) by types of political messages are allocated.

The information-communicative process binding together political sphere of a society, has the features depending on that, it is shown in processes interpersonal общений, group or mass communication. For a policy mass information-communicative processes have paramount value. At this level of the organisation of information relations the political agents specially prepared for interaction with public opinion, first of all, operate. As a rule, to them carry official structures of the state, the state, independent and oppositional mass media (mass-media), corporate structures (bodies of parties, public associations, professional political advertising agencies, etc.) . Interaction of these agents forms the information market on which each of them carries out own political strategy, subordinated to achievement of the interests in power sphere. The variety of actions of agents in the information market can be reduced to two types: mobilisation, including propaganda and propagation, and marketing, presented by methods паблик рилейшнз or PR, and also political advertising.

These ways of information interaction characterise different, quite often opposite methods of behaviour of subjects in information field. So, propaganda and propagation represent ways of information control over people and giving to their political actions of a strict social orientation. Basically without use of agitation and propaganda ways of influence on public opinion any state, any political subject interested in expansion of social support of the purposes concerning the power cannot manage. Practice shows that during such influence can use misinformation receptions (a direct deceit), methods индоктринации (violent imposing to the person of in advance programmed estimations and judgements, psychological pressure thereupon on its consciousness), that is the styles of dialogue completely ignoring freedom of the person and its right to development of own political convictions.

Contrary to such receptions of a gain of consciousness of the person, marketing strategy are formed according to supply and demand relations on the information and directed on that the information necessary for the subject in due time and in a proper place has appeared at its order. Marketing strategy of informing are directed on belief of the person, instead of on control of its consciousness, they tempt more likely, rather than is directive order those or other forms of behaviour. They are guided mainly by feedback, dialogue, fair and mutually valid informing by political subjects of counterparts on the purposes and problems. Such line of conduct in the information market inseparably linked with preliminary explanation of information requirements of the person and with its confidential informing that, finally, is directed on the realised choice of the form of its political participation.

III. Mass-media in mass communication system. The major tool of realisation of political strategy in the information market are mass media. In 1840, probably, having a presentiment of their future political influence, О де Balzac named for the first time the press “the fourth power”. And already a century later, with transformation of electronic mass-media, first of all television, in the integral element of a political discourse, the main tool of carrying out of election campaigns, this social mechanism has turned to the most powerful political institute which literally has changed system parametres of the public power. Mass-media represent the establishments created for open, public program by means of special technical toolkit of various data to any persons.

The role of mass-media in the politician cannot be estimated unequivocally. Depending on in what hands there is the press, a radio and television, they can be used as for objective and operative informing of people on real events in the world, their education and education, and a manipulation in those interests or other groups. Still G.Lasuell has allocated following four basic functions of mass-media:

- Supervision over the world (gathering and information distribution);

- "Editing" (selection and information commenting);

- Public opinion formation;

- Dissemination of culture.

“To have the important information, - authors of the modern German grant on political science write, - means to have the power; to be able to distinguish the important information from not the important means to possess still большей the power; possibility to extend the important information in own direction or to hold back it means to have the double power”.

From the politological point of view the most important differentiation of mass-media is their division on governmental, oppositional and independent. In the general plan such structure shows that in such information field there is no monopolism, in it the forces purposely discrediting and weakening influence on weights of authorities can operate. The public opinion here faces not with unidirectional, and with разнонаправленными information streams, developing the estimations and approaches in ideologically competitive environment. In the conditions of pluralism of the information the main criterion of success and a condition of a survival of the majority of mass-media is the attention of public. To draw this attention, mass media at a choice to those of publications and transfers usually are guided by following general principles:

- приоритетность, importance (valid and imaginary) and appeal of a theme to citizens - war and peace, terrorism, ecological and other accidents, scandals;