Лекции по "Политологии"

- Eccentricity of the facts that means domination in mass-media of the information on extreme events - the hunger, unusual murders, any the negative phenomena;

- Novelty of the facts, that is the messages which yet have not received a wide public resonance and if they are not present, also their inventing;

- Political successes of leaders, a cult of stars in the politician, art, sports that is usual for mass-media in the conditions of the market;

- The high public status of those who gets on pages of newspapers or screens of TVs as it provides шиоркую audience reading, listening, looking.

IV. The Political manipulation and ways of its restriction. The greatest danger to citizens and the democratic device of the state is represented by use of mass-media for a political manipulation - the latent management of political consciousness and behaviour of people on purpose to force them to operate (or to stay idle) contrary to own interests. The manipulation is based, as a rule, on lie and a deceit covering mercenary actions. Myths make the base of all illusory picture of the world created by manipulators. So, as bearing designs of communistic system of a manipulation myths about a private property as about the main source of social harm, about inevitability of crash of capitalism and a communism celebration, about a supervising role of working class and its communist party etc. acted

According to professor Herbert Schiller, in the USA there are five main myths, serving domination of ruling elite:

About individual freedom and a personal choice of citizens;

About a neutrality of the major political institutes - the congress, court and the presidential power, and also mass-media;

About an invariance of egoistical human nature, its aggression, propensity to moneymaking and потребительству;

About absence in the American society of social conflicts, operation and oppression;

About pluralism of mass-media which are actually supervised by large advertisers, corporations, the government, representing the uniform industry of support and reproduction of illusory consciousness.

Gluing of labels, distortion of the facts, importunate advertising - only a small part of the means used by mass-media for deception of public opinion.

Minimisation of handling possibilities of mass-media is usually observed in societies where there is a valid pluralism of mass media and where behind them public control is established. In the majority of the countries of the world there are special bodies of the general control for the mass-media which are watching for observance by them этическимх and rules of law. So, in France such instance is the High council behind audiovisual communications. Democratic control in this case has not something in common with preliminary censorship, is not infringement of a freedom of speech and expression of opinions. Information, political and any other freedom of one people demands restriction when it breaks freedom and the rights of other citizens and the whole states. The information power, like the power political and economic, needs control from a society.

Character of mutual relations of the mass media applying for a role “an eye and society ears”, and the governments varies from the country to the country. The majority of bodies of the mass information prefers to underline the independence of the state, state-political institutes. Their relations can develop according to disputed, консенсусной or konfliktno-konsensusnoj models. So, in the open conflict friction between the government M.Thatcher to England and mass-media have poured out during the Falkland war when to journalists access to war zones has been closed, and the Ministry of Defence used practice of their frank misinformation. At the same time such mutual relations arise seldom as mass-media are interested in access to the state sources of the information, and the governments are always interested in public легитимации by means of mass media.

It is necessary to consider also that the western developed states are the largest manufacturers of the information. So, the government of the USA is included into number 20 of the best advertising agencies of the country, competing under expenses to such huge corporations, as "Coca-Cola". Annual expenses of the government on advertising exceed 200 mln. dollars in this connection Washington has received the ironic name “Hollywood on Potomac”. The governmental agencies spend about 600 mln. dollars in a year for manufacture of films and audiovisual programs. Cost of printed matter of the American government reaches almost 1,5 bln. dollars in a year. Service activity "pablik-rilejshnz" manages to the state in 400 mln. dollars

At all it, arguing on a role which mass-media play to the politician, it is necessary to ascertain: “the fourth power”, without entering an open competition to the first, political, nevertheless expands the positions of the independent player on a political field.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Theme 11. Elections.

 

1. Concept of a choice and their place of the democratic state.

2. Majority system and proportional systems.

The employment purpose: to analyse essence and value of conflicts in the politician. To show a role of elections in democratic system. Methodical recommendations: the seminar will be constructed in the form of reflexion, conversation.

1. Concept of a choice.

Selective process. Elections make an integral part of political process in modern democratic societies. In the conditions of modern democracies elections - them стрежневой the mechanism. The main form of display of the sovereignty of the people, its political role as power source. They serve also as the major channel of representation in authorities of interests of various public groups. For many, and in some countries and for the majority of citizens elections are the unique form of their real participation in the politician. Elections give to the person going to a big-times politics, possibility to become the deputy of parliament, the governor or even the president of the country. In the politological literature following functions of elections are allocated:

- An articulation and representation of various interests of voters;

- Control over power institutes;

- Integration of various opinions and formation of the general political will;

- легитимация and stabilisation of political system, concrete institutes of the power: parliament, the government, the president etc.;

- Expansion of communications, representation relations between institutes of the power and citizens;

- The water drain, transfer of political conflicts in a peaceful settlement channel;

- Mobilisation of the selective case on the decision of actual public problems;

- Political socialisation of the population, development of its political consciousness and political participation;

- рекрутирование political elite;

- Generating of updating of a society by means of competitive struggle of alternative political programs;

- Formation of effective opposition, its preparation for performance of functions of a political management.

Correspond to the social appointment elections can only in the event that they are based on certain principles. It is possible to allocate two groups of such principles: first, principles of the suffrage, defining the status, position of each citizen on elections; secondly, the general principles of the organisation of elections. Suffrage democratic principles include:

- Generality when all citizens, irrespective of a floor, a racial, national, class and professional accessory, language, level of incomes, riches, formations, faith and political convictions, have active (as the voter) and passive (as the candidate) the right to participation in elections;

- Equality - each voter has only one voice which is estimated equally, irrespective of its accessory to this or that person;

- Secret of elections - the decision of the concrete voter should not be known to someone;

- Direct (direct) voting - the voter makes the decision directly on the concrete candidate on an elective office, votes for the real person.

On the basis of democratic suffrages the principles characterising the organisation of selective process were generated. Such principles concern:

- Freedom of elections assuming, first of all, absence of political, administrative, social and economic, psychological and information pressure upon voters, organizers of elections and candidates;

- Presence of the choice, alternative candidates. The term "elections" assumes selection from various offers;

- Competitiveness, competition of elections. Various political forces should have possibility to struggle for trust of voters on elections, to acquaint and convince them of correctness, advantages of the electoral programme, lacks of electoral platforms of competitors;

- Periodicity and a regularity of elections;

- Equality of possibilities of political parties and candidates. It assumes approximate equality of their material and information resources.

Elections are always carried out in the concrete political environment which in many respects defines their originally democratic or манипулятивный character. This environment (a historical context) includes a number of the parametres reflecting its influence on selective process. Them concern:

- Presence in a society of a valuable consensus. Atmospheres of trust, readiness of political parties, the overwhelming majority of citizens to respect results of elections;

- Respect in the state of human rights. It is necessary that voters and candidates felt free, were not exposed to any threats that in a society there was a respect for will and the majority, and minority;

- Democratic character of registration of voters that means, first of all, absence of any sort дискриминаций;

- Formation of independent, impartial and competent controls by selective process, first of all election committees;

- Presence accessible to all feeders and consideration of complaints, a resolution of disputes, and also effective and independent bodies of control over observance of the selective law by all participants of electoral process.

II. Electoral systems. Technologies used on elections directly depend on an order of elections and ways of counting of votes in each country, operating in the state and rules of law regulating given process, rules and traditions. Set of these norms sets the certain logic to actions of all participants of pre-election struggle, induces them to operate within the limits of a uniform electoral order, gives it quality of an electoral system. The electoral system is a set of rules, receptions and the procedures providing and regulating legitimate formation representative and executive powers of the political power. In spite of the fact that these rules have the specificity practically in each country, there are the general principles, allowing to speak about types of electoral systems. It is accepted to allocate three basic their types - proportional, majority (the absolute and relative majority) and mixed.

The proportional system assumes voting by party lists, division of corresponding deputy mandates to proportionally poll, typed by this or that party on elections. Thus almost in all national legislations there is a barrier (usually it is 5 % of votes) which it is necessary to overcome parties that it has been presented in a legislature. There are two versions of majority systems:

First, a proportional electoral system at nation-wide level when voters vote for political parties in scales of all country, and election districts are not allocated;

Secondly, the proportional system which is based on multimandatory districts when deputy mandates are distributed according to the revealed level of influence in election districts.

Advantages of a proportional electoral system consist that the elite with its help authorities reflect a real picture of political life of a society, arrangement of political forces, provides feedback system between the state and the organisations of a civil society, promotes development of political pluralism and multi-party system. Its lacks too are essential:

At a proportional electoral system there can be difficulties in government formation as absence of dominating party with the accurate and firm program, creation of the multi-party coalitions including parties with the different purposes and various problems cause formation of the astable governments;

The proportional electoral system leads to that, the political forces, not having influence in all country, can receive representation in public authorities;

Because voting occurs not for the concrete candidate, and for parties, the direct connection between deputies and voters can be rather weak;

As at proportional system voting follows political parties, this circumstance establishes strong dependence of deputies on the parties and their management that connects hands to members of parliament and can negatively affect process of discussion and acceptance of important acts.

The majority electoral system is such system at which the winner on elections the candidate who has typed 50 % of voices plus 1 vote admits, taken part in voting (in some countries - from list structure of electorate). At majority system arise and communications between the candidate and voters are consolidated. Candidates, as a rule, well know a state of affairs in the election districts, interests of voters, are personally familiar with their most active representatives. Accordingly, and voters know about the one to whom they trust to express the interests in authorities. At this system on elections candidates of stronger political trend win the country. It promotes replacement from parliament and other authorities of representatives of small and average parties on the value.

The majority system promotes occurrence and strengthening of a tendency to formation in the countries where it is used, two-party or multi-party systems. Its advantages - possibility of formation of effectively working and stable government; allows well organised, large parties it is easy to win elections and to create the one-party governments. Lacks:

The fact of reception by the candidate of a relative majority of votes while the voices given to all other candidates, for attention are not accepted matters only and vanish;

The considerable part of voters of the country remains not presented in parliament;

The party which has received on elections of less voices, than its contenders, can appear presented in parliament the majority of deputy places;

Two parties which have collected identical or close quantity of votes, spend unequal number of candidates to authorities.

The mixed electoral system includes elements of both above-stated systems. In modern Russia half of deputies of the State Duma is selected according to proportional system, other half - majority. The essence of the mixed system consists that the certain part of deputy mandates is distributed according to principles of majority system that should promote formation of the steady government. Other part of mandates is distributed according to principles of a proportional electoral system that promotes the best reflexion of a parity of political forces in the country.

III. Selective process and election campaign. Elections to public authorities always coherently that on a political scene of this or that country various events are developed: pass meetings, meetings, meetings of candidates with voters, political leaders act with critical statements and positive programs in mass-media, in streets there are boards, etc. All variety of the events initiated and created by people on the threshold of and during elections in state structures, it is possible to designate concept “selective process”. At the same time each candidate or the selective block, entering pre-election struggle, aspires to solve own problems and undertakes for this purpose certain efforts.

Spent by it or them election campaign can be defined as set of the actions undertaken by parties, selective associations or candidates and their commands for achievement of their pre-election purposes. Election campaign represents a special kind of political management. As the subject of management in it the command (the party organisation, group of adherents, political advisers) led by the candidate acts, and as object potential voters act. The management purpose is defined by those problems which are put before itself by the candidate (a victory, only "promotion", a gain of a part of voices to weaken chances of a victory of the major candidate etc.) . All selective process inherently is competitive process in which course there is a sharp rivalry, fierce struggle between its participants for the right to possess prestigious positions in political hierarchy, for possibility to influence weights, for access to imperious resources.

Depending on time sequence and feature of solved problems, selective process shares on some stages:

- The preparatory stage characterising that political soil from which elections, and also the organizational actions doing possible elections "grow";

- The promotion of candidates which is coming to the end with their registration;

- Agitation and propaganda campaign;

- Voting and behaviour of results of elections.

Election campaign begins, as a rule, with promotion of candidates. This term is applied as under the relation to all state, and separate candidates or parties. In the first case election campaign represents a complex of organizational, political, information and propaganda and propaganda actions for direct maintenance of selective process in the state, in the second case - system of the actions directed on success of the concrete candidate or party.

IV. Selective technologies. Considering election campaign as a version of political process, it is necessary to consider:

First, the initiators of election campaign acting in a role of the subject of management, are deprived the right to dictate "game rule", that is to create norms, obligatory for object of the influence;

Secondly, the subject of management is deprived possibility to lean against the right of legitimate violence, to application of sanctions and other measures of influence to potential voters. Thereupon set of ways of influence on weights on purpose to affect their electoral behaviour and to induce them to vote for the certain candidate it is accepted to name selective technology.

Now in many countries there were people, the organisation of election campaigns became whose trade, the agencies specialising in this area were generated. In 1968 in Paris the International association of advisers for political campaigns has been created. In the Russian Federation political consulting firms have loudly declared for the first time themselves in election campaigns 1995-1996

Structural links of election campaign of modern type represent:

- The analysis of a pre-election situation in which course organizers of election campaign receive that necessary minimum of knowledge which allows them to build selective strategy not blindly, relying exclusively on own intuition, and it is rational, leaning against the objective data. Here two directions of research - the all-round analysis of a situation in district on the eve of elections and maintenance of information-analytical support of the begun election campaign are allocated;

- Strategy of election campaign which represents set of the information themes to which disclosing of the maintenance all election campaign will be repaired. Strategic themes during election campaign should receive an information reinforcement in the form of corresponding arguments, the facts extended on various communication channels. This process can be compared to a branching of a growing tree when from a trunk (theme) numerous branches (plots) start to grow. For example, if one of election campaign themes - honesty of the candidate working out subject tenches means search or creation of the concrete examples confirming its specified quality;

- Attraction in the field of the influence of the people belonging to different social groups. In selective technologies this problem dares by electorate segmentation, that is its breakdown at groups the objective accessory to which causes occurrence in people of some the general signs. The social groups allocated during the selective program for narrowly directed influence, name address groups. In relation to this or that candidate or selective association it is possible to present all electorate of district in the form of five basic layers (groups):

Actively supporting, that is "firm" electorate which under any conditions will vote for the candidate or for the party;

Passively supporting which country cares, family circumstances etc. can and not come on elections because of factors which have no relation to a policy - employment on work;

Taking of a neutral position, that is the people who more often do not have accurately expressed political position, them pre-election struggle a little interests, they were not defined in for whom will vote or in general will go on elections;

Adjusted mistrustfully. Usually this layer is made by the people sympathising other political parties and political leaders or people with the issued bias to all politicians. With confidence it is possible to tell that such people at the best simply will not come on elections, in others - will vote to other candidates;

Incited resolutely against. Members of other political parties and their active supporters concern them;

- Creation of image of the candidate. The central place in election campaign always is occupied with the candidate for from what representations at voters will develop, an estimation, opinions on it depend, finally, success or an election campaign failure. For this reason so important attention is given to formation of image of the candidate. First of all, its type, that is set of its most important lines making impression about integrity of its nature is defined. Known Russian political technologist A.Maksimov noticed that in the political market of Russia of the end of 90th years of the XX-th century the following was the basic types:

- The humanist (the scientist, the teacher, the economist - G.Javlinsky, G.Seleznev, S.Fedorov);

- The business executive (J.Luzhkov, V.Starodubtsev);

- The fighter (V.Anpilov, S.Kovalev, V.Zhirinovsky, A.Makashov);

- The person of the power (the leader of the nation, the large official - B.Yeltsin, E.Primakov, M.Shaymiev);

- The agent of national security (A.Lebed, R.Aushev, A.Rutsky);

- The technocrat (the manager of the western type - A.Chubays, S.Kirienko);

- The businessman (B.Berezovsky, K.Ilyumzhinov, K.Borovoj);

- экзотик (polar explorers, stars of a platform, sports - I.Kobzon, A.Tchilingarov).