Лекции по "Политологии"

After a choice of a type image makers start detailed working out of image of the candidate. It begins, as a rule, with “biography creation” when the maintenance and the form of giving of real events from life of the candidate is thought over to make its image more attractive in the opinion of voters. Those facts of the biography which "work" on the selected type, the doubtful moments are underlined either ignored, or treated as consequence of a developing ambiguous situation. In the course of designing of image of the candidate there are no trifles: any oversight, the slightest miss in this business can be used for its discredit. Occurrence at image and its maintenance on public demand from the candidate of the big internal efforts so not each person can far sustain similar psychological pressure.

V. The Electoral system of the Russian Federation. The electoral system of Russia is understood as the order of presidential elections established by acts, deputies of the State Duma, and also elections in other federal state structures. An electoral system of the Russian Federation and the suffrage I provide free will of citizens on elections. It is based on democratic principles of realisation by representatives of the people of the sovereign rights.

In Russia the territorial principle of the organisation of elections is used. It means. That elections are spent on election districts. According to the federal law “About the basic guarantees of suffrages and the rights to participation in a referendum of citizens of the Russian Federation”, election districts are formed on the basis of the data about number of the voters registered in corresponding territory. The difference in number of voters in election districts should not exceed 10 % from average rate of representation, in the remote and remote districts - no more than 15 %. For voting and counting of votes carrying out in districts polling districts from calculation no more than 3000 voters on each of them are created. In districts and sites election committees which it is made responsible for the organisation, carrying out and voting summarising on elections of voters are created. All system of district, territorial and local election committees is headed by the Central election committee of the Russian Federation. It consists of 15 members, 5 from which the State Duma, 5 % - the Federation Council and 5 - the president of the Russian Federation appoints.  

Expenses of election committees on preparation and elections of corresponding level are made at the expense of the means allocated from the budget (federal, the subject of Federation, local). Candidates create own selective funds for financing of the election campaign. On elections in public authorities and in local governments selective associations and blocks too can create selective funds. They can be created at the expense of following means:

- Own means of the candidate, selective association, the selective block;

- The means, allocated to the candidate the selective association which has put forward it, the selective block;

- Donations of citizens and legal bodies;

- The means allocated with corresponding election committee to the candidate, selective association, the selective block after registration of the candidate (the list of candidates).

Donations in selective funds from outside are not supposed:

- The foreign states, the enterprises, the organisations, citizens, persons without citizenship, the international organisations, the Russian legal bodies with foreign participation if the share of the foreign capital exceeds 30 %;

- The citizens of Russia who has not reached age of 18 years, public authorities and local governments, state and municipal authorities and the organisations, the legal bodies having the state or municipal share in their authorised capital stock, exceeding 30 %, and also using privileges on payment of taxes and tax collections;

- Military units, law enforcement bodies, charitable establishments, religious institutions;

- Anonymous sacrificers.

The legislation operating in Russia provides responsibility according to federal laws for infringement of suffrages of citizens.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Theme 18. Foreign policy and the international relations.

 

Foreign policy as the state phenomenon. The majestic structure of the organisation of life of mankind causes necessity of distinction for the politician of the states of its internal and external aspects. It is considered to be that the foreign policy is an activity of the state on the international scene, regulating relations with other subjects of foreign policy activity - the states, their unions and blocks, foreign public associations, the world and regional international organisations. The form of traditional realisation of foreign policy is:

- An establishment of diplomatic relations (or decrease in their level, a suspension, rupture and even declaration of war at обоcтрении relations with the former partners) between the states;

- Opening of representations of the state at the international organisations or membership in them;

- Cooperation with friendly to the state foreign social movements, associations and the organisations;

- Realisation and maintenance at various levels of incidental and regular contacts to representatives of the states, the international public structures with which the given state has no diplomatic relations or friendship, but with them is interested in dialogue for whatever reasons.

Presence of steady communication channels with foreign partners allows the state to diversify a combination of methods and means in realisation of foreign policy activity: realisation of regular information interchange, visits at different levels; preparation for the conclusion of bilateral and multilateral contracts and agreements on a wide spectrum of questions, including confidential and confidential character; contribution to development of possibilities of foreign policy activity of one states and blocking of similar possibilities of others (in those or other directions); preparation for war and maintenance favorable for conducting operations of foreign policy conditions, etc. Last decades civilised participants of the international life pay the increasing attention to a non-admission of rocket-nuclear war, the organisation of preventive measures on prevention of the international conflicts, technogenic accidents and cooperation on liquidation of their consequences, struggle against hunger, pandemics, joint actions for preservation of the environment etc.

The foreign policy is activity and interaction of the official subjects having or assuming the right to speak on behalf a society name, to express its interests, to select certain methods and ways of their realisation. According to traditional representations, the states express themselves on international scene through foreign policy which can accept two basic forms - diplomacy and strategy. Their appointment - satisfaction of national interests, first of all, maintenance of freedom, safety and favorable conditions for development of the person, a society and the state. In the scientific and publicistic literature there are two basic treatments of concept “national interest”:

1) liberal, representing this phenomenon as a certain generalisation of interests of the citizens which realisations should be subordinated, including, and foreign policy strategy of the state;

2) conservative or государственническая, identifying national interests with interests of the state.

Last years national interests are more and more deduced from difficult interaction of various groups of the interests anyhow influencing the state structures and institutes which are responsible for foreign policy activity of the state. Comprehension of objective national interests by intellectual and political elite allows the states to formulate foreign policy doctrines in which foreign policy strategy as unity of the purposes and the means connected with realisation on international scene of fundamental national interests is defined. Strategy of any international actor represents, first of all, a method of the analysis of a situation, an estimation of directions of its possible development, comparison of the received picture to own interests and a choice on this basis most effective remedies for realisation of the planned purpose. The big strategy of the state unites in itself all means available at its order for maintenance of national interests both in peace, and in a wartime. There are two necessary conditions of successful national strategy:

Correct estimation of a strategic situation, that is features developed by the given moment of the international environment;

The strategic analysis, that is studying of other significant international actors, called to give about them fuller representation.

National or, otherwise, the big strategy of the state is realised in a series of the concrete practical actions undertaken by the state on all azimuths of the foreign policy, forming its foreign policy. Its ordinary consciousness formed by mass media, identifies with state foreign policy that is not absolutely true. The foreign policy of the modern state represents the difficult political phenomenon including as basis objectively existing national interests, the big strategy and a foreign policy as a policy on their realisation. Space of life of mankind on which face and co-operate, confront and co-operate at different levels (global, regional, multilateral, bilateral) the states, realising national interests, it is accepted to name the international relations.   

II. Subjects of the international relations. The international relations represent special sphere of the world of a policy. In “the Political encyclopaedia” they are characterised as follows: “the International relations - specific area of public relations; set political, economic, ideological, legal, diplomatic, the military man and other communications and mutual relations between the basic subjects of the world community; behaviour of the states on international scene”. In the western political science it is accepted to reduce all definitions of the international relations to two approaches:

1) when they are represented as a version of human activity at which between persons more than from one state there is a social interaction;

2) when they act in the form of the conflict or cooperation on international scene between various institutes - the states, intergovernmental and non-governmental bodies, the organisations, movements, associations.

The basic subjects of the international relations and now there are states. Operating behind frameworks of own borders in which they possess the internal sovereignty, the states solve also variety of additional problems:

Establish control over activity in the territory of foreign forces and the structures complicating achievement of national safety and stability;

Reflect threats of the integrity, safety and to the national interests;

Co-ordinate interests with stronger partners or contenders;

Fill up the resources increasing their force, authority, influence on international scene.

During historical process such mechanisms of interaction of the states, as союзничество and confrontation, protectorate (protection) and partnership, cooperation and rivalry gradually were created and developed. And now the state continues to represent in the international life a society as a whole, instead of any separately taken social groups or the political organisations. Under the authority of the state there are the questions connected with maintenance of the sovereignty, safety, territorial integrity, development of a science, formation, culture. The state is the unique national institute having legitimate powers to participate in relations with other states, to conclude contracts, to declare war. And now it is possible to represent influence, force of the state as its ability, protecting own interests, to influence other states, on a course of events in the world. The real place of the state in system of the international relations is defined not only military potential, the size of territory and natural riches, but also wider indicators - population formation, a science condition, national economy structure, volume of output per capita, a state of environment etc.

Last decades the international organisations become more and more important subjects of the international relations. They are usually divided on interstate (or intergovernmental) and the non-governmental organisations. Arising in economic, political, cultural and other spheres of life of the people, they have certain features and specificity, play own role in the international relations. As examples it is possible to name:

- The regional organisations - Association of the states of South East Asia (АСЕАН), League of the Arabian states, OSCE etc.;

- The organisations of economic character - the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Currency fund (IMF), the World bank, etc.;

- The organisations within the limits of separate branches of the world economy - the International power agency (МЭА), the International agency on atomic energy (IAEA), the Organization of the countries of exporters of oil (OPEC) etc.

- The political-economical organisations - the Organization of the African unity (ОАЕ), the Organization of the American states (ОАГ), the North American zone of free trade (НАФТА), etc.;

- The professional organisations, such, as the International organisation journalists (International Federation of Journalists), the International organisation of criminal police (INTERPOL), etc.;

- The demographic organisations - the International democratic federation of women (МДФЖ), the World association of youth (YOU) etc.;

- The organisations in the field of physical culture and sports - the International Olympic committee (IOC), the Organization of the Incorporated nations concerning formation, sciences and cultures (UNESCO), etc.;

- The military organisations - the Organization of the North Atlantic contract (NATO), the Pacific pact of safety (АНЗЮС), etc.;

- The trade-union organisations - the International confederation of free trade unions (МКСП), the World confederation of work (ВКТ);

- The organisations in support of the world and solidarity: the World council of the world (ВСМ), Paguoshsky movement, the International institute of the world etc.;

- The religious organisations - the World council of churches (ВСЦ), Christian peace conference (ХМК) etc.;

- The organisation which purpose is the help to prisoners of war, to other victims of war, accidents and acts of nature - the International red cross (МКК);

- The ecological organisations - Green Peace, etc.

The most considerable role in the international relations is played by the Organization of the Incorporated nations. Formed in 1945, it has reached almost full universality, having united 191 the modern independent state. Within the limits of the United Nations there was variety of the organisations which were included into the international relations and as United Nations structures, and as independent structures (World Health Organization, the International court, IMF, the World bank, UNESCO, etc.). In United Nations structure it is possible to allocate six principal organs - General assembly, Security council, Economic and social council, Council about guardianship, Secretary, the International Court. Powerful and many-sided influence of the United Nations on the international relations is defined by following major factors:

- The United Nations are the most representative forum for discussions between the states on pressing questions of world development;

- The United Nations charter is the base of modern international law, some kind of conventional by the code of behaviour of the states in their mutual relations;

- In the shadow of the United Nations there is a great number of the international organisations which carry out regulation of the international life;

- The United Nations are allocated by the all-important competence - to solve war and peace questions, including by use of the armed force. 

Last decades the role of non-governmental participants constantly increases in the international relations. If in the XX-th century beginning was only 69 international non-governmental organisations in the beginning of this century their number exceeds 60 000. Usually among non-governmental actors (differently them name “actors out of the sovereignty“) allocate the international non-governmental organisations (МНПО) both transnational corporations and banks (the multinational corporation, ТНБ). According to the resolution of General Assembly of the United Nations, МНПО “any international organisation which has been not founded on the basis of the intergovernmental agreement” is considered. As the basic signs МНПО are considered: absence of the purposes of extraction of profit; its recognition at least one state or consultative state presence at the international intergovernmental bodies; reception of money resources more than from one country. Now such organisations is nearby 10 000. The most known and influential among them - “Doctors without borders”, Green Peace, ”the International amnesty”, etc.

Transnational corporations have received rapid development in second half of XX-th century and, according to the United Nations, by the end of their this century was more than 53 thousand, 90 which % are based in the developed countries of northern hemisphere. Such fact testifies to their influence on the international relations at least: in 1998 “Dzheneral моторс”, one of the largest multinational corporations, has made production on 161,3 bln. dollars that was more national produce of such countries, as Greece (137,4 bln. dollars), Israel (96,7), Ireland (59,9), Slovenia (19,5), Nicaragua (9,3). Growth and multinational corporation influence it was stimulated with development of transnational banks which carried out financial operations worldwide. On the beginning of 1999 actives only 20 largest of them exceeded the sum of 425 bln. dollars As a whole transnational corporations became rather active and influential players in the international relations. Their activity in this plan had and has both positive, and negative the parties.

It is possible to consider as "pluses": 1) world trade development; 2) investment of large capitals in economy of the developing states; 3) creation of workplaces in underdeveloped countries; 4) expansion of sphere of democracy in the world at the expense of perfection of market relations; 5) preparation of national shots; 6) introduction of procedures of the conciliatory permission disputable and conflict situations.

"Minuses" look so indisputable also: blasting of the national sovereignty of the countries where there are multinational corporations; strengthening as a result of their activity of rupture between “the rich North” and “the poor South”; readiness of the multinational corporation and ТНБ for the sake of own profits to co-operate with repressive modes; interest to preservation of cheap labour in developing countries that blocks their social progress; washing out of national culture of underdeveloped countries by means of introduction of foreign technologies, the goods, cultural and cultural wealth etc. 

III. Features of the international political processes. One is shown that in this area of a policy there is no uniform legitimate centre of compulsion, a uniform source of the power which would possess indisputable authority for all participants of these communications and relations. The international sphere of a policy is regulated by various norms. Its main actually political regulator is the balance of forces developing between the states. Bring the contribution to this business and norms of international law. In the international relations there is a place and for moral regulators - principles of the international relations which all subjects operating in this sphere should adhere. In the United Nations Charter, and also in the Helsinki declaration of Meeting on safety and cooperation in Europe (СБСЕ, subsequently transformed to OSCE) 1975 they have been formulated as follows:

- A principle of sovereign equality of the states. This principle includes in itself following elements: 1) the states are legally equal; 2) each state has the rights inherent in the full sovereignty; 3) each state is obliged to respect правосубъектность other states; 4) territorial integrity and political independence of the state are inviolable; 5) each state has the right to choose and develop freely the political, social, economic and cultural systems; 6) each state is obliged to carry out completely and honesty international obligations and to live in peace with other states; 

- A principle of non-use of force and threats by force. According to the United Nations charter, “all members of the United Nations abstain in their international relations from threat by force or its application against territorial inviolability and political independence of any state, and otherwise, incompatible with the United Nations Charter”;

- A principle of indestructibility of frontiers. Has been accepted on СБСЕ in 1975 in which Final certificate it was ascertained: “the States-participants consider as indestructible all borders each other, as well as borders of all states in Europe. And consequently they will abstain from any encroachments on these borders”. The principle maintenance can be reduced to three elements: a recognition of existing borders; refusal of any territorial claims now and in the future; refusal of any other encroachments on borders, including threat by force or its application;

- A principle of territorial integrity of the states. In the United Nations Charter it is declared that the state “should abstain from any actions directed on infringement of national unity and territorial integrity of any other state” that “the state territory should not be object of acquisition by other state as a result of threat by force or its application”. In this connection “any territorial acquisitions which have grown out of threat by force or its application” should not admit lawful;

- A principle of the peace permission of the international disputes. According to the United Nations charter, “all members of the United Nations resolve the international disputes by peace means so that not to subject to threat an international peace, safety and justice”; 

- A principle non-interference to internal affairs. According to the United Nations Charter, it “has no right to intervention in the affairs in essence entering into the internal competence of any state”. This prohibition extends on actions of any other participants of the international dialogue, and not just the United Nations;