Лекции по "Политологии"

- A principle general respect of human rights. In the Charter of the United Nations of the obligation of the states on observance of human rights are stated in the most general form, and till now the states aspire to concretise the standard maintenance of a principle of general respect of human rights. But the direct regulation and protection of the rights and freedom of the person still remains a domestic concern of each state;

- A principle of self-determination of the people and the nations. It declares unconditional respect of the right of each people freely to choose ways and forms of the development. After disorder of colonial empires the question on self-determination of the nations in sense of formation of the independent national states basically is solved;

- A cooperation principle. As defines the Charter of the United Nations, the states are obliged “to carry out the international cooperation in the permission of the international problems of economic, social, cultural and humanitarian character”, and also are obliged “to support an international peace and safety and with that end in view to accept effective collective measures”;

- A principle of diligent performance of the international obligations. Under the United Nations Charter “е members of the United Nations honesty carry out the obligations taken up on the present Charter to provide to all of them in aggregate the rights and the advantages following from an accessory to structure of members of the United Nations”.

At the same time the constant pluralism of the state sovereignties does interstate relations unpredictable enough, chaotic, unbalanced. In such atmosphere any state is not capable to keep constantly accurately expressed and invariable positions under the relation to each other, being, for example, with somebody in constant confrontation or in so steady allied relations. The sphere of the international relations represents area of nonequilibrium and non-uniform political interactions. As practice shows, last decades imbalance of the international relations has increased because disintegration of world socialist system and liquidation of the USSR have essentially altered balance of forces of the world. It has allowed the western states to offer and impose to the world own criteria of settlement of the international political relations that has met counteraction from the whole group of the states. Chaos growth in the international relations has been caused also by an exit on the international political arena of new independent subjects of the international relations operating out of and besides the state institutes and the organisations. Complexity and ambiguity of relations of participants of world politics is caused as well by that their behaviour in the given sphere is initiated by the most different reasons.

IV. Theoretical dispute of realists and idealists in a science about the international relations. In ХХ century of discussion about the nature and specific characteristics of the international relations were conducted basically between realists and idealists (20-40th which in second half of XX-th century were replaced by their followers neorealists and neoliberals), традиционалистами and модернистами (50-60th), statesmen and глобалистами (70-80th).

Realists (J. Кеннан, J. Ball, Z.Bzhezinsky, etc.) believed that the basic natural purpose of each state is accumulation of force which provides realisation of national interests.

Each state as they considered, should aspire to creation of such balance of forces which would act in the conditions of a general competition, power opposition as the constraining mechanism and guaranteed to the state of its safety. Any morally-ethical and even standard establishments for the state should be considered by it not differently, as means of restriction of its sovereignty. Thus admitted that any means of achievement of the purpose - belief, blackmail, force, trade, diplomacy, - are initially justified, so far as multiply power of the state and create possibility of the decision of tasks in view. Care and responsibility at decision-making should be the main values of behaviour of the states on international scene. It is considered to be the theoretical father of political realism the American political scientist G.Morgentau (1904-1980), which in the book published in 1948 “Political relations between the nations: Struggle for influence in the world ”ascertained:“ the World policy, similar any policy, is race for power. Whatever ultimate goals were pursued in a world policy, the direct purpose always is the power ”.

Idealists (D.Perkins, V.Din, U.Lippman, T.Cook, etc.), on the contrary, considered the international relations through a prism of legal and ethical categories, being guided by creation of standard models of world relations.

At the heart of their belief refusal of a recognition of power and military means as major regulators of interstate relations lay. The preference was completely given to system and international law institutions. Instead of balance of forces idealists offered the mechanism of collective safety. This idea was based on that reason that all states have an overall aim - the world and general safety as instability of power balance and war cause to the states a huge damage, conduct to senseless expenditure of resources. V.Wilson, having stated in 1918 in 14 points substantive provisions of post-war peaceful settlement, has accurately expressed sights of idealists. In particular, as the basic mechanisms of harmonisation of world political relations he has offered: to spend open peace talks; to guarantee a freedom of commerce in peace and a wartime; to reduce national arms to is minimum sufficient level compatible to national safety; To create League of the Nations which overall objective would be maintenance of collective safety of member countries of this international organisation.

After the Second World War on the foreground there was a discussion between модернистами and традиционалистами. Модернисты (M.Kaplan, R.Nort, G.Alisson, etc.) The basic attention gave to modelling of actions of the national states on international scene. In their researches the emphasis became on studying of procedures and decision-making mechanisms, on the description of behaviour of various segments of ruling elite and the governments, working out of technologies of bureaucratic compromises and other components of development of foreign policy of the states. The account of influence of all actors who were taking part in working out of foreign policy decisions, allowed them to model concrete systems of the international relations, to make forecasts of interaction of the states at various political levels. In turn традиционалисты focused attention to necessities of the account of influence of those factors influencing foreign policy which broadcast characteristic traditions for the concrete countries and customs, express features of personal behaviour of politicians, a role of mass and group values etc.

Discussion модернистов and традиционалистов about value of various components of foreign policy activity of the states was replaced by dispute of scientists on, whether there was a state the central element in the international relations or integration processes have transformed this sphere to qualitatively other, interdependent and interconnected world community. So-called statesmen (K.Dojch, K.Uoltts, etc.) believed that, despite changes, the states remained the central subjects of world politics, forms of relations between them have changed only. Therefore and the nature of sphere of the international relations remained former: it is sated with foreign policy actions of the states which are guided by principles of realism, power restraint of competitors and achievement of balance of forces arranging their foreign policy. Contrary to statesmen глобалисты (E.Haas, L.Linberg, etc.) Originally continuing a line of idealists, insisted on decrease in a role of the national states in the world.

In their opinion, modern changes in the world of transport, communication, the information have made the national state the inefficient tool of achievement of own safety and maintenance of well-being of the citizens. Спрессованность the international relations, “world compression” (O.Young) were the most adequate reflexion of dynamics of modern international relations. Objective necessity for cooperation of forces and possibilities of the states for struggle against global threats pulls together the people, there is a process of merging of mankind in a single whole. All it, on thought глобалистов, promoted creation of reliable preconditions for formation of more directed world order, control increase over problems of safety, integration strengthening.

V. The Geopolitical approach to an explanation of the international relations. The essential contribution to development of the theory of the international relations was brought by authors of geopolitical theories who have offered all of the ideas opening dependence of foreign policy of the states from factors, allowing them to supervise certain geographical spaces. The most appreciable contribution to geopolitics development at the first stage was brought by English, German and American scientists - F.Rattsel, H.Makkinder, K.Haushofer, A.Mehen, Russian thinkers N.JA.Danilevsky, S.N.Trubetsky, P.N.Savitsky, L.I.Mechnikov, V.Semenov-Tjanshansky.

The geopolitics as scientific discipline has endured three stages of development - classical (before the Second World War), revisionist (till 1989) and modern (after the end of "cold war”). The central question at all these stages there was a character of mutual relations between "sea" and "land", талассократиями and теллурократиями, Leviafanom and the Hippopotamus. Space concepts as political force, хартленда as “geographical axis of history”, панидей as spiritual basis of "the big spaces”, римленда from it “anaconda strategy”, “geostrategic regions” have made serious impact on thinking and activity of politicians which decided destinies of the world the day before and after the first and second world wars. The same ideas explained logic of action of creators of "cold war”, corrected existence geopolitical scientific constructions of modern writers.

The large contribution to development of geopolitical ideas in the end of the XX-th century has brought J. Розенау, put forward the concept according to which the world of a global policy began to develop of two взаимопересекающихся the worlds:

- First, from полицентричного the world “actors out of the sovereignty” in which, along with the states, various corporate subjects and even separate persons began to operate and which began to promote creation of new communications and relations in world politics;

- Secondly, from traditional structure of the world community where the main position is occupied with the national states. Crossing of these two worlds shows dispersal of imperious resources, and also occurrence of contradictory tendencies. For example, increase of abilities of the individual to the analysis of the political world is combined with extreme complication of political interrelations. Erosion of traditional authorities adjoins to role strengthening цивилизационных the beginnings in a substantiation of a policy of the states. Identity search goes along with constant reorientation political лояльностей etc. At the same time recognised, according to J. Розенау, decentralisation of international contacts and relations, and the main thing - washing out of concept "force" and, as consequence, change of the maintenance and sense of concept “safety threat” became factors in this world.

In modern conditions geopolitical principles had new development, they were considerably updated and enriched. So, S.Hantington considers collision of civilisations as sources of geopolitical conflicts. The concept of "gold billion” according to which the civilisation blessings can get only to the limited number of winners of progress owing to limitation of world resources, predicts an aggravation of interstate conflicts because of resources and territories, placing thus emphasis on necessity of creation by the safe and prospering states of artificial obstacles in relations with less successful subjects of the international life.

Along with similar confrontational forecasts a number of politicians and theorists offer “бесполярную” treatment of the world based on general harmony and cooperation of the states, put forward models of type of the "common European home", systems of collective safety of the states meaning creation and the people existing in the interconnected, denuclearized and interdependent world. Essential motions occur and in treatment of the geopolitical principles, which steels to be applied not only at studying international relations, but also to be applied to the analysis of internal political processes.

VI. Modern lines of development of the international relations. Modern international relations became arena of becoming aggravated struggle of global and national forces and the beginnings. On the one hand, on a world scene the role of the national states consistently changes. Thus their dependence on the international community not simply grows at the decision of the global problems demanding connection of efforts of many states, the integrated positions assuming development, but also from a policy of group of the most developed both powerful in economic and military relations of the countries and their military-political unions. Growth of influence of integration factors was marked by blasting of a monopoly position of great powers as individual rulers of destinies of the world, democratisation of the international cooperation meaning increase of access of the population to the information and involving in acceptance of their concerning decisions, real deepening of cooperation of the countries within the limits of incorporated Europe, other integration centres and associations. The tendencies strengthening a role of the various political and cultural centres of influence in the international sphere, strengthening of their self-sufficiency, finally, conduct to formation of logic of development of the multipolar world. At the same time a number of real directions in formation of a modern world order undermine multipolarity as a principle of its organisation, being transformed to configurations of the monopolar world based on dictatorship of separate participants of the international relations.

As consequence of world politics globalisation, in the world the understanding of force and safety has essentially changed. In particular, strengthening of a versatility of interstate relations in sphere of an exchange of technologies, information exchanges or the transport, providing own game rules and balance of resources, transforms concept of force into the base and advantages, and vulnerability of the separate countries. According to it and the concept of safety began to reveal not only the big dependence on positions of other states, but also the internal structure. Now scientists speak about presence of following components of state security on the world scene:

- Political, assuming state actions on preservation of the national sovereignty and an infringement non-admission other states of the vital interests. Today such actions provide the measures directed on increase of trust to the concrete state; maintenance of a certain transparency of the behaviour in external sphere; cooperation and integration of efforts with other states for the decision of the international conflicts on the basis of international law; transition to a principle of sufficiency of arms and an exception of threats of application of means of mass defeat; activization миротворчества;

- The economic, joint interstate actions directed on strengthening, cooperation and integration with other countries at realisation of social and economic and humanitarian programs. It, first of all, provides state transition to measures of maintenance of steady social and economic development, restriction of a damage to the environment of rational managing, more organic embedding in system мирохозяйственных communications, observance of the general rules of economic cooperation;

- Humanitarian, assuming the actions directed on association of the people, the nations and cultures in uniform community. It is thus provided that the community will be guided by humanistic values, on human rights observance to live according to that understanding of freedom which is accepted in its concrete society, on rendering of the humanitarian help by the sufferer, fight against terrorism and a narcotism;

- Ecological, providing state actions on environment preservation as bases of existence of the present and future generations, to strengthening of the bases of human life in all their variety, to fastening of the relation to the nature as to object of aesthetic character.

The present stage of the international relations is characterised by precipitancy of the changes, new forms of distribution of force, the power and influence in the world. In a motley picture ломки old and buildings of new international relations it is possible to allocate six accurately enough looked through tendencies of their development:

- The first of them - power dispersal in system of the international relations. There is a process of formation of the multipolar (multipolar) world. Today the increasing role in the international life is got by the new centres. On the world scene all leaves Japan more actively, in the international affairs relative density of the European union raises, China and India are invited to the G8 summit, in Latin America the prompt and original development allocates “a black comet” - Brazil. Integration processes of the North America and Europe were threw to Africa, Asia and Latin America. In South East Asia there were new industrial states - so-called ' the Asian tigers '; 

- The second tendency - globalisation of many aspects of life of the modern mankind, expressed in occurrence of global economy, the world currency-financial and credit-investment system, development of uniform system of world communication, activization of activity of transnational corporations and banks, occurrence real надгосударственной spheres of life and activity of people. On this basis more and more interdependent and complete world when a little serious shifts in one part of the world inevitably give rise to the response in its other parts, irrespective of will, intentions of participants of such processes was generated;

- The third tendency is increase of the global problems demanding for their decision joint efforts of all mankind. Occurrence of global problems has affected all system of the international relations. Really, the efforts directed on prevention of ecological accident, struggle against the hunger, deadly illnesses, attempt to overcome backwardness will not give results if will dare only at national level, without world community participation. For their decision demands planetary association of intellectual, labour and material resources;

- The fourth tendency - strengthening of division of the world on two poles - poles of the world, well-being and democracy and a pole of war, fermentation and tyranny. On a pole of the world, well-being and democracy there are 25 countries - the states of the Western and Northern Europe, the USA, Canada, Japan, Australia and New Zealand. In them lives 15 % of the population of globe, so-called ' gold billion '. In these countries rich democracies in which the standard of living of the ordinary citizen to historical measures is rather high (from 10 to 30 thousand dollars of the annual income), life expectancy not less than 74 years prevail. On other pole there are states of Africa, Asia, Latin America, republic of the former USSR and the East countries. In them more than 800 million persons live in conditions of absolute poverty, and from 500 million starving about 50 million annually starve. The situation is aggravated with that globalisation processes not only promote liquidation of ruptures in development of "the rich North” and “the poor South”, but also provoke occurrence rather appreciable “the poverty centres” in the richest states of the present;

- The fifth tendency consists in that, as in interstate, and in the international life of the politician as spontaneous collision of sociohistorical forces all is more considerably restricted by the beginnings of the conscious, purposeful, rational regulation based on the right, democratic principles and knowledge.

- The sixth tendency is shown in processes democratisation both the international relations, and internal political modes in tens countries of the modern world. With the termination ' cold war ' even in the conditions of the most authoritative modes possibilities to hide were considerably narrowed and furthermore to justify infringements by the state of freedom of the person, rights its natural and won in sociopolitical struggle. The world distribution receives such phenomenon, as progressing politicisation of the weights everywhere demanding access to the information, participations in acceptance of their concerning decisions, improvements of the material well-being and quality of life. In turn, all it has deep influence on the international relations.

The developing uniform, global world penetrated by contradictions today it is still far not homogeneous society. The reality of modern international relations assumes paramount orientation of the states to rules of law as regulators of their foreign policy communications. However still early to assert that the force right has given way to force of the right. The system of international law needs qualitative updating. The changes which have occurred in the world of qualitative character demand change of structure and functions of the United Nations and other international organisations, proceeding from requirements of the further democratisation of world politics and the international relations.

VII. Modern foreign policy strategy of Russia. After disintegration of the USSR Russia has appeared in essentially new foreign policy situation.

The Russian Federation was reduced in the geopolitical parametres. It has lost a number of important seaports, military bases, in its structure there was a semienclave - the Kaliningrad region. The country not only has lost allies in East and the Central Europe, but also has received along the new and not equipped borders a number of the states with unfriendly adjusted management. Defensibility of the Russian Federation has considerably suffered. Its fleet has lost bases in Baltiysk and Black the seas, thus the Russian part of the Black Sea fleet divided with Ukraine remained to be based in Sevastopol which has appeared the Ukrainian city. The former Soviet union republics have nationalised powerful military groups which took place in their territory. The uniform system of antiaircraft defence of all post-Soviet territory has collapsed. There was a problem of the status of ethnic Russian in again formed countries of the near abroad. As a whole Russia has as though kept away from Europe, became even more northern and continental country.

Development of new tactics and strategy of behaviour of Russia on international scene was defined not only long-term plans of updating of the country. She has to the full tested on herself braking influence of the domestic political traditions inherited from the past of mass and elite stereotypes of thinking, negative influence of the problems connected with occurrence of the new states on its borders. From height of today initial representations of the Russian democrats that the former union republics grateful to Moscow for given freedom and dividing with her the general ideals, will aspire to preservation of "brotherly bonds” with the changed Russia look groundless. Have appeared a utopia and their iridescent hopes that after the termination of "cold war” nations of the world will begin to live an united family and on the earth the world, stability, an order and good neighbourhood will prevail. Illusions of have vanished also that the West becomes for new Russia the most reliable ideological and political ally, the generous and disinterested sponsor, the ideal sample for imitation in questions of social and economic and political development.